Dryopteris fragrans

• Overview
• Interesting Facts
• Common Names
• Description
• Biology
• Taxonomy
• Similar Species
• More Info
• Further Reading
• Notes

Overview

Interesting Facts

Common Names

Click on the language to view common names.

Description

Family Dryopteridaceae

Plants perennial , terrestrial or on rock, occasionally hemiepiphytic or epiphytic. Stems creeping to erect , rarely arborescent , sometimes climbing , branched or unbranched, dictyostelic, bearing scales . Leaves circinate in bud, monomorphic or dimorphic . Petiole usually not articulate to stem, scales usually persistent at base , in cross section with 2--many roundish bundles, or bundles 2 and lunate . Blade simple to commonly 1--5-pinnate or more divided , leaf buds absent or present. Veins pinnate or parallel in ultimate segments, simple or forked , free or anastomosing, areoles sometimes with included free veinlets. Indument on blade commonly of glands , hairs , and/or scales, especially on rachis and costae abaxially. Sori borne abaxially on veins or at vein tips (but usually not marginal ), or sporangia acrostichoid and covering abaxial surface, if in discrete sori then variously shaped (round , oblong , or elongate ) ; receptacle not or only slightly elevated , with or without indusium, indusium variously linear , falcate , or reniform , sometimes hoodlike, cuplike, or round. Sporangia with stalk of 2--3 rows of cells ; annulus vertical , interrupted by stalk. Spores all of 1 kind, usually not green (except Matteuccia, Onoclea ), oblong or reniform in outline, monolete, variously ornamented (often broadly winged ), 64 per sporangium (32 in apogamous spp. ) . Gametophytes green, aboveground, cordate, glabrous or often bearing glands or hairs; archegonia and antheridia borne on lower surface, antheridia 3-celled.

Genera ca. 60, species perhaps exceeding 3000 (18 genera, 79 species in the flora ) : worldwide.

The family Dryopteridaceae has been variously circumscribed; it is here delimited in a manner similar to that of R. M. Tryon and A. F. Tryon (1982) but with the inclusion of Nephrolepis . In many works, the family has gone under the illegitimate name Aspidiaceae. Some authorities define Dryopteridaceae more narrowly, to exclude Athyrium, Deparia, Diplazium, Cystopteris, and Gymnocarpium (Athyriaceae or Woodsiaceae), Woodsia (Woodsiaceae), Lomariopsis (Lomariopsidaceae), Nephrolepis (Nephrolepidaceae or Davalliaceae), Onoclea and Matteuccia (Onocleaceae), and Ctenitis and Tectaria (Tectariaceae) . Characteristics holding Dryopteridaceae (as circumscribed here) together include the bilateral , monolete spores, often broadly winged perispore, absence of needlelike hairs, scaly stem and petiole bases, abaxial (nonmarginal) sori, base chromosome number of 40 or 41 (also 38 and 39 in Woodsia, 37 in Onoclea, 42 in Cystopteris ), and usually indusiate sori. Loss of indusium, dimorphism , areolate venation , and reduced blade dissection have occurred repeatedly along many evolutionary lines in Dryopteridaceae, and in general these characteristics are often not very useful in delimiting genera or assessing intergeneric relationships .

In some genera, especially Phanerophlebia and Polystichum, the blade bears very narrow scales (sometimes called microscales) that resemble uniseriate hairs. These scales may be only one or two cells wide. Every intergradation exists between these filiform microscales and more typical, wider scales, and the two types are the same color, generally tan to brownish. Microscales are probably not homologous with true hairs, which may be either unicellular or multicellular , uncolored or sometimes reddish (as in Tectaria and Ctenitis ), glandular (as in Woodsia ) or not. Hairs in Dryopteridaceae, if present at all, are generally readily distinguishable from the needlelike, transparent ones found in Thelypteridaceae.[1]

Genus Dryopteris

Plants terrestrial , rarely on rock. Stems short-creeping to erect , stolons absent. Leaves monomorphic , green through winter or dying back in winter. Petiole ca. 1/4--2/3 blade length , bases swollen or not; vascular bundles more than 3, arranged in an arc, ± round in cross section . Blade deltate-ovate to lanceolate, 1--3-pinnate-pinnatifid, gradually reduced distally to pinnatifid apex, herbaceous to somewhat leathery. Pinnae not articulate to rachis, segment margins entire, crenate , or serrate, spinulose or not; proximal pinnae reduced (several pairs), same size as or enlarged relative to more distal pinnae, sessile to petiolulate , equilateral or often inequilateral with pinnules on basiscopic side longer than those on acroscopic side; costae adaxially grooved , grooves continuous from rachis to costae to costules ; indument of linear to ovate scales abaxially, also sometimes with glands , blades ± glabrous adaxially. Veins free , forked . Sori in 1 row between margin and midrib , round; indusia round-reniform, attached at narrow sinus , persistent or caducous . Spores brownish, coarsely rugose or with folded wings . x = 41.

Species ca. 250: mostly in temperate Asia.

The relationships of the North American species are reasonably well understood, but species identifications are complicated by the frequent presence of hybrids in field populations. Sterile hybrids can be distinguished from fertile species by their misshapen spores and intermediate morphology. They are not included in the key , but they may be identified as to parentage by combinations of characters in the key (e.g. , marginal sori for Dryopteris marginalis, narrow blades for D . cristata) . Relationships are shown in the accompanying reticulogram.[2]

Physical Description

Habitat

Shaded cliffs and talus , often of limestone; 50--1800 m [3].

Typically found at an altitude of 0 to 2,916 meters (0 to 9,567 feet).[4]

Biology

Reproduction

Duration: Perennial

Growth

Sunlight: Sun Exposure: Partial to Full Shade.

Temperature: Cold Hardiness: 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b, 5a, 5b, 6a, 6b, 7a, 7b, 8a, 8b. (map)

Taxonomy

Synonyms

Dryopteris fragrans var. remotiuscula Komarov • Nephrodium fragrans (L.) Desv. • Polypodium fragrans Linnaeus

Notes

Name Status: Accepted Name .

Last scrutiny: 15-Mar-2000

Similar Species

Members of the genus Dryopteris

ZipcodeZoo has pages for 100 species, subspecies, varieties, forms, and cultivars in this genus:

D. acutidens (Pointed Woodfern) · D. affinis (Golden Male Fern) · D. affinis cambrensis (Male Fern) · D. affinis pseudodisjuncta (Golden-Scale Male Fern) · D. affinis var. azorica (Golden-Scale Male Fern) · D. affinis 'Crispa Congesta' (Male Fern) · D. affinis 'Crispa Gracilis' (Male Fern) · D. affinis 'Cristata' (Golden Male Fern) · D. affinis 'Cristata The King' (Crested Male Fern) · D. affinis 'Stablerii' (Crisped Golden-Scaled Male Fern) · D. algonquinensis (Algonquin Woodfern) · D. arguta (Coastal Wood Fern) · D. atrata (Shaggy Shield Fern) · D. australis (Dixie Wood Fern) · D. benedictii (Benedict's Woodfern) · D. bissetiana (Beaded Wood Fern) · D. boottii (Boott's Woodfern) · D. burgessii (Burgess' Woodfern) · D. campyloptera (Mountain Woodfern) · D. carthusiana (Spinulose Shield Fern) · D. celsa (Log Fern) · D. championii (Champion's Wood Fern) · D. cinnamomea (Cinnamon Woodfern) · D. clintoniana (Broad Swamp Fern) · D. crassirhizoma (Thick-Stemmed Wood Fern) · D. crinalis (Serpent Woodfern) · D. cristata (Crested Shield Fern) · D. cristata × intermedia (Crested Buckler Fern) · D. cristata × marginalis (Crested Buckler Fern) · D. cristata × spinulosa (Crested Buckler Fern) · D. cycadina (Shaggy Shield Fern) · D. dilatata campyloptera (Mountain Wood Fern) · D. dilatata var. americana (Mountain Wood Fern) · D. dilatata 'Cristata' (Crested Broad Buckler Fern) · D. dilatata 'Jimmy Dyce' (Broad Buckler Fern) · D. dilatata 'Lepidota Cristata' (Broad Buckler Fern) · D. dilatata 'Recurvata' (Broad Buckler Fern) · D. dowellii (Dowell's Woodfern) · D. erythrosora (Autumn Fern) · D. erythrosora 'Brilliance' (Autumn Fern) · D. expansa (Alpine Buckler Fern) · D. felix-mas 'Robusta' (Male Fern) · D. felix-mas 'Undulata Robusta' (Robust Male Fern) · D. filix-mas (Male Fern) · D. filix-mas 'Barnesii' (Barnesii Fern) · D. filix-mas 'Crispa Cristata' (Male Fern) · D. filix-mas 'Cristata' (Male Fern) · D. filix-mas 'Digitata' (Male Fern) · D. filix-mas 'Gracilis' (Male Fern) · D. filix-mas 'Linearis' (Slender Crested Male Fern) · D. filix-mas 'Linearis Polydactyla' (Slender Crested Male Fern) · D. filix-mas 'Parsley' (Male Fern) · D. filix-mas 'Undulata Robusta' (Robust Male Fern) · D. fragrans (Fragrant Cliff Wood-Fern) · D. fragrans var. fragrans (Fragrant Woodfern) · D. fragrans var. remotiuscula (Fragrant Fern) · D. fuscoatra (Crowned Woodfern) · D. glabra (Kilaw) · D. goldiana (Giant Wood Fern) · D. goldieana celsa (Goldie´s Wood Fern) · D. hawaiiensis (Hawai'i Woodfern) · D. hondoensis (Hondo Fern) · D. intermedia (Evergreen Wood Fern) · D. lacera (Lacerate Wood-Fern) · D. leedsii (Leeds' Woodfern) · D. ludoviciana (Florida Shield Fern) · D. marginalis (Evergreen Wood Fern) · D. neowherryi (Woodfern) · D. pacifica (Asian Pacific Beaded Wood Fern) · D. parvula (Little Woodfern) · D. pittsfordensis (Pittsford's Woodfern) · D. podosora (Kauaikinana Wood Fern) · D. pseudo-filix-mas (Mexican Male Fern) · D. pseudo filix-mas (Mexican Male Fern) · D. remota (Remote Wood Fern) · D. rossii (Ross' Wood Fern) · D. sandwicensis (Hawaii Woodfern) · D. scottii (Scotts Wood Fern) · D. separabilis (Woodfern) · D. sieboldii (Siebolds Wood Fern) · D. slossoniae (Slosson's Woodfern) · D. subbipinnata (Ainahou Valley Woodfern) · D. tenebrosa (Na Pali-Kona Woodfern) · D. tokyoensis (Tokyo Wood Phone) · D. triploidea (Triploid Woodfern) · D. uliginosa (Woodfern) · D. unidentata (One-Tooth Woodfern) · D. uniformis (Uniform Wood Fern) · D. wallichiana (Alpine Woodfern) · D. × algonquinensis (Algonquin Woodfern) · D. × benedictii (Benedict's Woodfern) · D. x boottii (Boott's Woodfern) · D. × burgessii (Burgess' Woodfern) · D. x complexa 'Robust' (Robust Male Fern) · D. × dowellii (Dowell's Woodfern) · D. x triploidea (Triploid Woodfern) · D. algonquinensis (Algonquin Woodfern) · D. benedictii (Benedict's Woodfern) · D. burgessii (Burgess' Woodfern) · D. dowellii (Dowell's Woodfern)

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Further Reading

• Alaska / Harriman Alaska Expedition. New York: Doubleday, Page, 1901-1910. url p. 383.
• Alaska. New York, Doubleday, Page & company, 1901- url p. 383.
• An ecological characterization of Coastal Maine (north and east of Cape Elizabeth) / Stewart I. Fefer and Patricia S. Schettig: principal investigators. Newton Corner, Mass.: Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northeast Region, 1980. url , p. 3.
• An ecological survey of Isle Royale, Lake Superior. Lansing, Mich., Wynkoop Hallenbeck Crawford Co., State Printers, 1909. url .
• An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada and the British possessions: from Newfoundland to the parallel of the southern boundary of Virginia and from the Atlantic Ocean westward to the 102nd meridian / by Nathaniel Lord Britton and Hon. Addison Brown. New York: Scribner, 1913. url p. 19.
• Annotated list of the ferns and flowering plants of New York state, by Homer D. House. Albany, The University of the state of New York, 1924. url p. 21.
• Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, -1965. url , p. 259.
• Annual report of the Michigan Academy of Science. Lansing, Mich.: The Academy, 1904. url p. 36.
• Bartonia;proceedings of the Philadelphia botanical club. .. 1 - 10 1908 - 19 Philadelphia, Philadelphia Botanical Club, Academy of Natural Sciences. url p. 22, p. 40, p. 50.
• Budd's flora of the Canadian Prairie Provinces / [Ottawa]: Research Branch, Agriculture Canada, 1987. url p. 42.
• Bulletin - New York State Museum. Albany: New York State Education Dept. url p. 642.
• Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History). London: The Museum, 1951-1992. url p. 192, p. 206, p. 359.
• Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 46 1919 New York: Torrey Botanical Club, 1870-1996 url p. 305, p. 318, p. 462, p. 638.
• Bulletin of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. [Washington, D.C.?]: Supt. of Docs., G.P.O., 1913-1923. url p. 73.
• Canadian filicineae / Macoun & Burgess. [Ottawa: s. n.]1884. url p. 208.
• Contributions from the Botanical Laboratory and the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: [s.n., url .
• Ferns and fern allies of Canada / [Ottawa]: Research Branch, Agriculture Canada, 1989. url p. 176, p. 206, p. 211, p. 212, p. 213, p. 367.
• Flora of Japan: in English: combined, much revised and extended translation / by the author of his Flora of Japan (1953) and Flora of Japan, Pteridophyta (1957); edited by Frederick G. Meyer and Egbert H. Walker. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1965. url p. 65.
• Flora of West Virginia, by Charles Frederick Millspaugh and Lawrence William Nuttall. 1 1896 Chicago, 1896. url p. 190, p. 75.
• Flora of the Rocky Mountains and adjacent plains, Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, Montana, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and neighboring parts of Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, and British Columbia / by P.A. Rydberg. New York: The author, 1922. url p. 1044.
• Harriman Alaska series. City of Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1910-1914. url p. 383.
• Harriman Alaska series. vol. I-V, VIII-XIV Washington, D.C., Smithsonian Institution, 1910-14 url p. 383.
• How to know the ferns a guide to the names, haunts, and habits of our common ferns / by Frances Theodora Parsons; illustrated by Marion Satterlee and Alice Josephine Smith. Toronto: Publishers' Syndicate, 1899. url .
• How to know the ferns; a guide to the names, haunts and habits of our common ferns, New York, C. Scribner's Sons[c1899] url .
• Journal of ethnobiology. 12-13 1992-1993 Flagstaff, Ariz.: Center for Western Studies, 1981- url p. 29.
• Journal of the New York Botanical Garden. 41 1940 Lancaster, Pa.: Published for the Garden by the New Era Printing Co., 1900- url p. 110, p. 65, p. 66, p. 92.
• Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society. Oxford [etc.]Royal Microscopical Society. url p. 202.
• List of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta growing without cultivation in northeastern North America. Prepared by a Committee of the Botanical Club, American Association for the Advancement of Science. New York, 1894. url p. 13.
• List of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe (1982 edition) Council of Europe url p. 34, p. 65.
• Manual of the flora of the northern states and Canada / by Nathaniel Lord Britton. New York: Holt, 1905. url p. 14, p. 15.
• Meddelelser om Grønland. København, C. A. Reitzels Forlag, 1879-1979. url p. 212.
• Memoirs of the Torrey Botanical Club. 5 1893 - 18 Durham, N.C.: Published for the Club by the Seeman Printery, 1889- url p. 13.
• Michigan flora: a list of the fern and seed plants growing without cultivation / prepared by W.J. Beal. [Lansing, Mich.]: State Board of Agriculture: 1904. url p. 36, p. 36.
• Minnesota botanical studies. Minneapolis, Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota. url , p. 252, p. 518, p. 619, p. 619, p. 757, p. 757.
• North Atlantic biota and their history; a symposium held at the University of Iceland, Reykjavík, July 1962, under the auspices of the University of Iceland and the Museum of Natural History. Editors: Askell Löve and Doris Löve. Sponsored Oxford, New York, Pergamon Press, 1963 url p. 88.
• Observations on the flowering plants, ferns and fern allies growing wild in Marquette County, Michigan, in 1916 and 1917, especially in the vicinity of the Huron Mountain Club. Ann Arbor, Michigan, Published by the University, 1918. url .
• Our ferns in their haunts, a guide to all the native species, ill. by William Walworth Stilson. New York, Stokes[1901] url .
• Our ferns in their haunts; a guide to all the native species, New York, F. A. Stokes Co.[1901] url .
• Part I. The living flora of West Virginia, by C. F. Millspaugh. Part II. The fossil flora of West Virginia, by David White. Wheeling, Wheeling news litho. co., 1913 url p. 18.
• Phytologia memoirs. Plainfield, N.J.: H.N. Moldenke and A.L. Moldenke, 1980- url p. 29, p. 31.
• Phytologia. Bronx Park, New York, H.A. Gleason and H.N. Moldenke, url p. 146.
• Publication. Field Columbian Museum. Chicago.: Field Columbian Museum, 1895-1909. url p. 190, p. 75.
• Publications in botany / Ottawa: The Museum, 1969- url p. 11, p. 15, p. 25, p. 31, p. 41, p. 49, p. 52, p. 55, p. 63, p. 7, p. 8.
• Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18. Ottawa, F. A. Acland, Printer to the King, 1919- url , , , , .
• Report of the Second Norwegian Arctic expedition in the "Fram" 1898-1902. .. Kristiania, In commission by T. O. Brøgger, 1907-1919. url .
• Report of the second Norwegian Arctic Expedition in the "Fram", 1898-1902. Published by Videnskabs-selskabet i Kristiania, at the expense of the Fridjof Nansen Fund for the Advancement of Science. KristianiaT.O. Brøgger1907-19 url .
• Reports of the Survey. Botanical series. Minneapolis [etc.]1892- url p. 252, p. 518, p. 619, p. 757.
• Rydberg, P. A. Flora of the Rocky Mountains and adjacent plains, Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, Montana, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and neighboring parts of Nebraska, South Dakota, and British Columbia /by P. A. Rydberg... 1917 New York: The author, 1917. url p. 1044.
• Syllogeus. Ottawa, National Museum of Natural Sciences, 1972-1995. url p. 10, p. 11, p. 115, p. 19, p. 20, p. 20, p. 20, p. 36, p. 37, p. 44, p. 45, p. 5, p. 55, p. 58.
• The American florist: a weekly journal for the trade. Chicago: American Florist Company, [1885-1931] url p. 1082.
• The Arctic prairies, a canoe-journey of 2, 000 miles in search of the caribou; being the account of a voyage to the region north of Aylmer Lake. New York, C. Scribner's Sons[c1911] url .
• The Arctic prairies: a canoe-journey of 2, 000 miles in search of the caribou; being the account of a voyage to the region north of Aylmer Lake / by Ernest Thompson Seton. Toronto: W. Briggs, 1911. url p. 328.
• The Arctic prairies; a canoe-journey of 2, 000 miles in search of the caribou; being the account of a voyage to the region north of Aylmer Lake, New York, C. Scribner's sons, 1911. url p. 328.
• The Asa Gray bulletin. 2 1953 Ann Arbor, Mich. url p. 180, p. 277, p. 43.
• The Canadian field-naturalist. 65 1951 Ottawa, Ottawa Field-Naturalists' Club. url calder , cody , cody , p. 102, p. 110, p. 110, p. 112, p. 117, p. 126, p. 150, p. 152, p. 153, p. 156, p. 163, p. 164, p. 167, p. 168, p. 170, p. 171, p. 173, p. 175, p. 180, p. 191, p. 191, p. 192, p. 276, p. 278, p. 282, p. 288, p. 289, p. 343, p. 368, p. 418, p. 420, p. 468, p. 477, p. 50, p. 553, p. 562, p. 627, p. 642, p. 94, p. 97.
• The botanic gardens list of rare and threatened species IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre url p. 3.
• The fern lover's companion; a guide for the Northeastern States and Canada. Melrose, Mass., The Author[c1922] url .
• The flora of Disko Island and the adjacent coast of West Greenland from 66-71 N. lat.: with remarks on phytogeography, ecology, flowering, fructification and hibernation / by Morten P. Porsild; assisted by A. Erling Porsild. København: B. Lunos bogt., 1920 [i.e. 1926]- url p. 23, p. 23.
• The vascular plants in the flora of Ellesmereland / H. G. Simmons. Kristiania: Videnskabs-selskabet i Kristiania, 1906. url p. 182.
• Torreya. Burlington, Vt., Torrey Botanical Club, 1901-1945. url p. 138, p. 195.
• Who's who among the ferns, comp. and illustrated by W. I. Beecroft. New York, Moffat, Yard, 1910. url p. 205.
• Carlson, T. J. and W. H. Wagner Jr. 1982. The North American distribution of the genus Dryopteris. Contr. Univ. Michigan Herb. 15: 141--162.
• Fraser-Jenkins, C. R. 1989. A classification of the genus Dryopteris (Pteridophyta: Dryopteridaceae). Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), Bot. 18: 323--477.
• Montgomery, J. D. 1982. Dryopteris in North America. Part II. The hybrids. Fiddlehead Forum 9: 23--30.
• Montgomery, J. D. and E. M. Paulton. 1981. Dryopteris in North America. Fiddlehead Forum 8: 25--31.
• Petersen, R. L. and D. E. Fairbrothers. 1983. Flavonols of the fern genus Dryopteris: Systematic and morphological implications. Bot. Gaz. 144: 104--109.
• Viane, R. L. 1986. Taxonomical significance of the leaf indument in Dryopteris (Pteridophyta): I. Some North American, Macronesian and European taxa. Pl. Syst. Evol. 153: 77--105.
• Wagner, W. H. Jr. 1971. Evolution of Dryopteris in relation to the Appalachians. In: P. C. Holt, ed. 1971. The Distributional History of the Biota of the Southern Appalachians. Part 2. Flora. Blacksburg, Va. Pp. 147--192. [Virginia Polytechnic Inst. and State Univ., Res. Div. Monogr. 2.]
• Werth, C. R. 1991. Isozyme studies on the Dryopteris "spinulosa" complex. I: The origin of the log fern Dryopteris celsa. Syst. Bot. 16(3): 446--461.

Notes

Contributors

• Brands, S.J. (comp.) 1989-present. The Taxonomicon. Universal Taxonomic Services, Zwaag, The Netherlands. Accessed January 11, 2012.

Data Sources

Accessed through GBIF Data Portal November 13, 2007:

• Canadian Museum of Nature, Canadian Museum of Nature Herbarium
• European Environment Agency, EUNIS
• Missouri Botanical Garden, Missouri Botanical Garden
• University of Alaska Museum of the North, University of Alaska Museum of the North Herbarium
• University of Washington Burke Museum, Vascular Plant Collection - University of Washington Herbarium
• Utah Valley State College
• , Utah Valley State College Herbarium

Identifiers

• Biodiversity Heritage Library NamebankID: 2644689
• Catalogue of Life Accepted Name Code: ITS-17536
• Global Biodiversity Information Facility Taxonkey: 13728649
• Globally Unique Identifier: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:17270130-1
• GRIN Nomen Number: 411581
• Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) Taxonomic Serial Number (TSN): 17536
• International Plant Names Index (IPNI) ID: 17095220
• Natural Heritage Network Species Identifier: PPDRY0A0C0
• U.S.D.A. Plant Symbol: DRFR
• Zipcode Zoo Species Identifier: 36147

Footnotes

1. Alan R. Smith "Dryopteridaceae". in Flora of North America Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org. [back]
2. James D. Montgomery, Warren H. Wagner Jr. "Dryopteris". in Flora of North America Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org. [back]
3. "Dryopteris fragrans". in Flora of North America Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org. [back]
4. Mean = 613.210 meters (2,011.844 feet), Standard Deviation = 494.810 based on 130 observations. Altitude information for each observation from British Oceanographic Data Centre. [back]

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