Dioscorea alata

• Overview
• Interesting Facts
• Common Names
• Description
• Biology
• Taxonomy
• Similar Species
• More Info
• Further Reading
• Notes

Overview

Interesting Facts

Common Names

Click on the language to view common names.

Description

Family Dioscoreaceae

Herbs twining or woody vines , rarely erect , small herbs. Rootstock rhizomatous or tuberous . Stem twining to left or right , pubescent or glabrous , sometimes prickly. Leaves alternate or opposite, petiolate , simple or palmately compound , basal veins 3--13, interstitial veins reticulate; leaflets of palmately compound leaves often ovate or lanceolate. Flowers usually unisexual (when plants dioecious, rarely monoecious), sometimes bisexual , solitary, clustered, or in cymules , these in a spike, raceme , or thyrse , these sometimes grouped into panicles. Male flowers: perianth lobes 6, in 2 whorls, basally connate or free ; stamens 6, sometimes 3 reduced to staminodes or absent, inserted on perianth or receptacle; ovary rudimentary or absent. Female flowers: similar to male ones; staminodes 3, 6, or absent; ovary inferior, 3-loculed, ovules usually 2 per locule (more than 2 in a few small genera), placentation axile ; styles 3, free. Fruit a capsule, berry, or samara. Seeds with a membranous wing or not; endosperm present; embryo small.

About nine genera and 650 species: widely distributed in tropical and temperate regions , especially in tropical America; one genus and 52 species (21 endemic, two introduced ) in China.[1]

Genus Dioscorea

Herbs twining . Rootstock rhizomatous or tuberous , variable in color, shape , chemical constituents, and depth in ground . Bulblets axillary or absent. Leaves alternate or opposite, petiolate , simple or palmately compound , basal veins 3--9. Flowers unisexual (plants dioecious, rarely monoecious), arranged spirally in axillary, usually elongate spikes or racemes , or in small cymules in ± spikelike thyrses , these often several together, sometimes gathered into a terminal or axillary panicle by reduction of subtending leaves. Male flowers: stamens 6, 3 sometimes reduced to staminodes or absent. Female spikes 3.5--10 cm, few flowered. Female flowers: staminodes 3, 6, or absent. Capsule 3-winged, dehiscent apically at maturity. Seeds with a membranous wing .

More than 600 species: widely distributed in tropical and temperate regions ; 52 species (21 endemic, two introduced ) in China.

Dioscorea is a genus of great economic value, including important food plants. Several species are widely cultivated in many cultivars (including Dioscorea alata D. esculenta D. japonica and D. polystachya), while other, wild species are valuable famine foods. Other species are sources of drugs both in traditional Chinese and Western medicine (notably D. nipponica and D. zingiberensis which are major sources of steroid precursors) .[2]

Physical Description

Habitat

Near ponds , marshes, drainage canals, waste areas; 0 m [3].

Typically found at an altitude of 0 to 4,028 meters (0 to 13,215 feet).[4]

Biology

Reproduction

Duration: Perennial

Growth

Culture: Space 12-15" apart.

Soil: Minimum pH: 6.1 • Maximum pH: 7.8

Sunlight: Sun Exposure: Full Sun .

Temperature: Cold Hardiness: 9a, 9b, 10a, 10b. (map)

Taxonomy

Notes

Publishing author : L. Publication : Species Plantarum 1753 (1 May 1753)

Similar Species

Members of the genus Dioscorea

ZipcodeZoo has pages for 47 species, subspecies, varieties, forms, and cultivars in this genus:

D. alata (Purple Yam) · D. altissima (Dunguey) · D. bulbifera (Aerial Yam) · D. bulbifera var. bulbifera (Air Potato) · D. cayenensis (Yellow Guinea Yam) · D. cayennensis (Yellow Guinea Yam) · D. cirrhosa (Dyeing Yam (Philippines)) · D. communis (Lady´s-Seal) · D. composita (Yam) · D. convolvulacea (Yam) · D. cylindrica (Wild Yam) · D. deltoidea (Wild Yam) · D. discolor (Ornamental Yam) · D. dumetorum (Bitter Yam) · D. elephantipes (Elephants Foot) · D. esculenta (Chinese Yam) · D. floribunda (Yam) · D. floridana (Florida Yam) · D. glabra (Chinese Yam) · D. hemicrypta (Dioscorea) · D. hispida (Intoxicating Yam) · D. japonica (Glutinous Yam) · D. kamoonensis (Kamoon Yam) · D. macrostachya (Yam) · D. macrostachys (Elephants Foot) · D. mexicana (Barbasco) · D. nummularia (Yam) · D. oppositifolia (Chinese Wild Yam) · D. pentaphylla (Five-Leaf Yam) · D. pilosiuscula (Bulbous Yam) · D. polygonoides (Mata Gallina) · D. praehensilis (Bush Yam) · D. prazeri (Wild Yam) · D. preussii (Preuss' Dioscorea) · D. purpurea (Podicherry Sweet Potato) · D. quaternata (Fourleaf Wild-Yam) · D. rotundata (Guinea Yam) · D. sagittata (Five-Leaved Yam) · D. sagittifolia (Wild Congo Yam) · D. sansibarensis (Zanzibar Yam) · D. septemloba (Seven-Lobed Yam) · D. spiculiflora (Yam) · D. sylvatica (Wild Yam) · D. tokoro (Mountain Yam) · D. tomentosa (Thorny Yam) · D. trifida (Indian Yam) · D. villosa (Colic Root)

More Info

• Search for Pictures: images.google.com
• Search for Scholarly Articles: Google Scholar
• Search using Scientific Name and Vernacular Names: All the Web | AltaVista Canada | AltaVista | Excite | Google | HotBot | Lycos
• Search using Specialized Databases: GenBank | Medline | Scirus | CISTI/CAL | Agricola Periodicals | Agricola Books

Further Reading

• A Manual of botany: being an introduction to the study of the structure, physiology, and classification of plants / Edinburgh: A. and C. Black, 1875. url .
• A contribution to the botany of the Isle of Pines, Cuba, based upon the specimens of plants from that island contained in the herbarium of the Carnegie Museum under date of October, 1916. By O.E. Jennings. n.p., 1917 url p. 97.
• A dictionary of English names of plants applied in England and among English-speaking people to cultivated and wild plants, trees, and shrubs, by William Miller; in two parts, English-Latin and Latin-English. London, J. Murray, 1884. url p. 148.
• A dictionary of the flowering plants and ferns, by J. C. Willis. CambridgeThe University Press, 1919 url p. 219.
• A dictionary of the plant names of the Philippine Islands / by Elmer D. Merrill. Manila: Bureau of Public Print., 1903. url p. 116.
• A flora of Manila / Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1912, 1974 printing. url .
• A flora of Manila, by E. D. Merrill. Manila, Bureau of Printing, 1912. url p. 151.
• A general system of botany, descriptive and analytical. In two parts. Part I. Outlines of organography, anatomy, and physiology. Part II. Descriptions and illustrations of the orders. By Emm. Le Maout [and] J. Decaisne. With 5500 figures by L. Steinheil a London, Longmans, Green & Co.1873. url .
• A hand-book to the flora of Ceylon: containing descriptions of all the species of flowering plants indigenous to the island, and notes on their history, distribution, and uses: with an atlas of plates illustrating some of the more inte by Henry Trimen. London: Dulau, 1893-1931. url p. 279, p. 40, p. 409.
• A handbook of systematic botany / by Dr. E. Warming with a revision of the fungi by Dr. E. Knoblauch, tr. and ed. by M. C. Potter. New York: Macmillan & Co., 1895. url p. 323.
• A handbook of systematic botany; with a revision of the fungi, by E. Knoblauch; tr. and ed. by M.C. Potter. London, Swan[1904] url p. 323.
• A handbook of tropical gardening and planting, with special reference to Ceylon, by H. F. Macmillan. .. Colombo, H.W. Cave & co., 1914. url p. 221.
• A manual of Indian botany. London, Blackie & Son Ltd., 1920. url .
• A manual of botany, including the structure, classification, properties, uses, and functions of plants. London, J & A. Churchill, 1887. url p. 706.
• A manual of botany: being an introduction to the study of the structure, physiology, and classification of plants. By John Hutton Balfour. London: J. J. Griffin [etc.] 1851. url p. 513.
• A manual of botany: including the structure, classification, properties, uses, and functions of plants. London, John Churchill and Sons, 1870. url p. 665.
• A manual of gardening for Bengal and Upper India. By Thomas A. C. Firminger. .. Calcutta, Thacker, Spink and co.; [etc., etc.]1874. url p. 121, p. 611.
• A manual of poisonous plants, chiefly of eastern North America, with brief notes on economic and medicinal plants, and numerous illustrations, Cedar Rapids, Ia., The Torch Press, 1911. url .
• A manual of poisonous plants: chiefly of eastern North America, with brief notes on economic and medicinal plants, and numerous illustrations / by L. H. Pammel. 1911 Cedar Rapids, Ia.: The Torch Press, 1910-11. url fig. 160, p. 374.
• A manual of scientific terms, pronouncing, etymological, and explanatory, chiefly comprising terms in botany, natural history, anatomy, medicine, and veterinary science, with an appendix of specific names. Designed for the use of by Rev. James Stormonth Edinburgh, Maclachlan and Stewart, 1885 url p. 126.
• A naturalist in Western China: with vasculum, camera, and gun, being some account of eleven year's travel, exploration, and observation in the more remote parts of the flowery kingdom; with an introduction by Charles Sprague Sargent. London, Methuen[1913] url p. 215, p. 58.
• A naturalist in western China, with vasculum, camera, and gun; being some account of eleven years' travel, exploration, and observation in the more remote parts of the Flowery kingdom, by Ernest Henry Wilson...with an introduction by Charles Sprague Sargent...With one hundred and one full-page illustrations and a map. London, Methuen & co., ltd.[1913] url p. 215, p. 58.
• A review of the identifications of the species described in Blanco's Flora de Filipinas, Manila, Bureau of public printing, 1905. url p. 118.
• A review of the references to the Hortus malabaricus of Henry Van Rheede Van Draakenstein [sic] Swansea: Printed at the Cambrian-Office, by Murray and Rees, 1839. url p. 34.
• A supplement to the Pharmacopia, and treatise on pharmacology in general: including not only the drugs and preparations used by practitioners of medicine, but also most of those employed in the chemical arts: together with a collection of the most useful medical formulæ. . by Samuel Frederic Gray. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longman, 1836. url p. 24.
• A text-book of tropical agriculture / by H.A. Alford Nicholls. London; Macmillan, 1906. url , .
• A year in Fiji, or, An inquiry into the botanical, agricultural, and economical resources of the colony. By John Horne. .. Published at the request of the Hon. Sir A. H. Gordon. .. London: E. Stanford; [etc., etc.], 1881. url p. 260.
• Agricultural news. Bridgetown, Barbados, Bowen & sons;1902-22. url p. 418.
• An anatomical atlas of vegetable powders. London, Churchill, 1904. url p. 14, p. 16.
• An annotated catalogue of types of the University of Illinois mycological collections (ILL) / Urbana: University of Illinois Press, c1997. url p. 52.
• An elementary course of botany: structural, physiological, and systematic / by Arthur Henfrey. London: John Van Voorst, 1878. url p. 685, p. 687.
• An encyclopaedia of gardening; comprising the theory and practice of horticulture, floriculture, arboriculture, and landscape-gardening, including all the latest improvements; a general history of gardening in all countries; and a By J.C. Loudon. Illustrated with many hundred engravings on wood by Branston. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1825. url p. 785.
• An encyclopædia of gardening; comprising the theory and practice of horticulture, floriculture, arboriculture, and landscape-gardening, including all the latest improvements; a general history of gardening in all countries; and a By J.C. Loudon. .. illustrated with many hundred engravings on wood by Branston. London: Printed for Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1827. url p. 785.
• An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, Manila, Bureau of Printing, 1922-26. url p. 215.
• An introduction to the natural system of botany: or, A systematic view of the organization, natural affinities, and geographical distribution of the whole vegetable kingdom; together with the uses of the most important species in medicine, the arts, By John Lindley. New York, G. & C. & H. Carvill, 1831. url p. 299.
• Anales de la Sociedad Española de Historia Natural. Madrid: La Sociedad, url p. 123.
• Annales du Jardin botanique de Buitenzorg. Leiden [etc.]: E. J. Brill [etc.] url p. 300, p. 304, p. 326.
• Annals of the Carnegie Museum. [Pittsburgh]: Published by authority of the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institute, 1901- url p. 97.
• Annual report Missouri Botanical Garden. 10 1899 St. Louis: Board of Trustees, 1890-1912. url p. 181.
• Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, -1965. url p. 484.
• Annual report of the Director to the Board of Trustees for the year. .. / Field Museum of Natural History Chicago, U.S.A.: Field Museum of Natural History, 1907-1943. url p. 135.
• Biodiversity Data Sourcebook. WCMC Biodiversity Series 1 World Conservation Press url p. 42.
• Biological effects of radiation; mechanism and measurement of radiation, applications in biology, photochemical reactions, effects of radiant energy on organisms and organic products. Edited by Benjamin M. Duggar. With the cooperation of Janet Howell Clark, Kenneth S. Cole, Farrington Daniels [and others] New York andMcGraw-Hill Book Co., 1936. url p. 689.
• Botanical abstracts. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins Co. url p. 175, p. 280, p. 6.
• Botanical publications of E.D. Merrill. [New York, etc., 1899- url p. 215.
• Bulletin - United States National Museum. 1879 Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, [etc.];1877-1971. url p. 11, p. 110, p. 123.
• Bulletin / Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington: G.P.O., 1901-1971. url p. 146, p. 232, p. 292, p. 510, p. 84, p. 89, p. 918.
• Bulletin / U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology. Washington: G.P.O., 1904-1916. url p. 100, p. 100, p. 101, p. 101, p. 102, p. 102, p. 90, p. 90.
• Bulletin of miscellaneous information /Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 1912 London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1900-1941. url p. 120, p. 340, p. 349, p. 356, p. 364, p. 406, p. 76.
• Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History). London: The Museum, 1951-1992. url p. 115.
• Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Jamaica. Kingston, Dept. of Agriculture, Jamaica. url p. 3, p. 70.
• Bulletin of the New York Botanical Garden. Lancaster, Pa.: Published for the Garden by the New Era Printing Co., url p. 142.
• Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 51 1924 New York: Torrey Botanical Club, 1870-1996 url p. 165.
• Bulletin. Bureau of Plant Industry. U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1901-13. WashingtonGovt. Print. Off. url p. 100, p. 33, p. 97.
• Camps in the Caribbees: the adventures of a naturalist in the Lesser Antilles. Edinburgh, D. Douglas, 1880. url .
• Carnegie Institution of Washington publication. Washington, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1902- url p. 814.
• Carotenoids, their comparative biochemistry. New York, Chemical Pub. Co., 1954. url p. 331.
• Catalogue of the African plants London, Printed by order of the Trustees, 1896-1901. url .
• Catalogue of the African plants collected by Dr. Friedrich Welwitsch in 1853-61. .. London, Printed by order of the Trustees, 1896-1901. url p. 39.
• Catalogue of the economic products of the Presidency of Bombay: being a catalogue of the Government Central Museum, Division 1., Raw produce (vegetable) / compiled by Assistant Surgeon Birdwood. Bombay: Printed at the Education Society's Press, 1862. url p. 242.
• Check-list of the species of fishes known from the Philippine Archipelago, Manila, Bureau of printing, 1910. url p. 102, p. 146, p. 147, p. 534.
• Chronological history of plants: man's record of his own existence illustrated through their names, uses, and companionship. Boston, Little, Brown & company, 1879. url .
• Contribution [I]-III to the coastal and plain flora of Yucatan, by Charles Frederick Millspaugh. 1 1898 Chicago, 1895-1898. url p. 357.
• Contributions from the United States National Herbarium 27 1928 Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1890- url p. 115, p. 135, p. 142, p. 143, p. 170, p. 255, p. 257, p. 259, p. 260, p. 271, p. 283, p. 401, p. 402, p. 421, p. 429, p. 432, p. 455, p. 466, p. 522, p. 56, p. 8, p. 83.
• Contributions to North American ichthyology. Based primarily on the collections of the United States National Museum. Washington: Govt. print. off., 1877-78. url p. 11, p. 110, p. 123.
• Contributions to the Queensland flora / Brisbane: Anthony James Cumming, Govt. Printer, 1890-1920. url p. 22.
• Contributions to the flora of Siam [Aberdeen]Printed for the University1912- url p. 10.
• Contributions to the flora of Siam. .. / by William Grant Craib. .. [Aberdeen]: Printed for the University of Aberdeen, 1912- url p. 10.
• Cyclopedia of American horticulture, comprising suggestions for cultivation of horticultural plants, descriptions of the species of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants sold in the United by L. H. Bailey. .. assisted by William Miller. .. and many expert cultivators and botanists. London: The Macmillan company, 1909. url p. 487.
• Descriptive catalogue of the Formosan fungi / by Kaneyoshi Sawoda. Taihoku, Formosa: Agricultural Experiment Station, 1919- url p. 161, p. 252, p. 58.
• Edwards's botanical register. 25 1839 London: James Ridgway, 1829-1847. url p. 79, p. 79.
• Elements of botany: structural, physiological, systematical, and medical / by John Lindley. London: Printed for Taylor and Walton, 1841. url p. 228.
• Emergency food plants and poisonous plants of the islands of the Pacific / [E.D. Merrill] Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Print. Office, 1943. url , p. 140, p. 33.
• Emin Pasha in central Africa: being a collection of his letters and journals / London: G. Philip & Son, 1888. url p. 529, p. 546.
• English cyclopaedia, a new dictionary of universal knowledge, conducted by Charles Knight. London, Bradbury, 1854-61. url .
• Experiment station record. Washington: G.P.O., 1889-1946. url p. 1076, p. 832, p. 949.
• Experimental evolution; lectures delivered in the "Summer School of Art and Science", University Hall, Edinburgh (August, 1891) by Henry de Varigny. and New York, Macmillan and Co., 1892. url p. 176.
• Flora Indica, or, Descriptions of Indian plants / by the late William Roxburgh. Serampore: Printed for W. Thacker, 1832. url p. 799.
• Flora Malesiana. general editor, C.G.G.J. van Steenis. Djakarta: Noordhoff-Kolff, 1950- url p. 330, p. 335.
• Flora Vitiensis nova: a new Flora of Fiji (spermatophytes only) / Albert C. Smith. Lawaii, Hawaii: Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden, 1979- url p. 167, p. 168, p. 170, p. 171.
• Flora barbadensis: a catalogue of plants, indigenous, naturalized, and cultivated, in Barbados: to which is prefixed, a geological description of the island /by James Dottin Maycock. 1830 London: J. Ridgeway, 1830. url p. 438.
• Flora of Costa Rica. .. by Paul C. Standley. .. 18 1937 Chicago, 1937. url p. 178, p. 180.
• Flora of Guatemala / Paul C. Standley and Julian A. Steyermark. 24 1952 Chicago: Chicago Natural History Museum, 1952. url p. 146, p. 148.
• Flora of Peru / by J. Francis Macbride. 13 1936 Chicago, U.S.A.: Field Museum of Natural History, [1936] url p. 690.
• Flora of Yucatan, by Paul C. Standley. 3 1930 Chicago, Field Museum of Natural History, 1930. url p. 229.
• Flora of the Lancetilla Valley, Honduras, by Paul C. Standley. 10 1931 Chicago, Field Museum of Natural History, 1931. url p. 137.
• Flora of the island of St. Croix. By Charles Frederick Millspaugh. 1 1902 Chicago, 1902. url p. 480.
• Flora of the islands of Margarita and Coche, Venezuela / by John Robert Johnston. Boston: Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, 1909. url p. 272, p. 284.
• Florigraphia Britannica; or, Engravings and descriptions of the flowering plants and ferns of Britain. London, Groombridge, 1857. url .
• Florigraphia britannica, or, Engravings and descriptions of the flowering plants and ferns of Britain / by Richard Deakin. London: Groombridge, 1857. url p. 72.
• Flowers of the field. London, G. Routledge, 1908. url .
• Flowers of the field. Rev. throughout and edited by Clarence Elliott. With an appendix including the Pipe-wort tribe (Eriocauleae) the Sedge tribe (Cyperaceae) and the Grass tribe (Gramineae) LondonG. Routledge[n.d.] url p. 280.
• Forest culture and eucalyptus trees, San FranciscoCubery1876 url p. 297, p. 548, p. 563.
• Fruit culture in foreign countries. Reports, from the consuls of the United States, on fruit culture in their several districts, in answer to a circular from the Department of State. Washington, Govt. Print. Off., 1890. url .
• Fruit culture in foreign countries: reports, from the consuls of the United States, on fruit culture in their several districts, in answer to a circular from the Department of State. Washington: G.P.O., 1890. url p. 426.
• Gardens, wildlife densities, and subsistence hunting by Maya Indians in Quintana Roo, Mexico / 1993. url p. 152, p. 153, p. 307, p. 308.
• Global Biodiversity: status of the Earth's living resources WCMC url p. 547.
• Gold Coast. Report on forests. LondonPrinted for H.M. Stationery Off. by Darling1910 url p. 183, p. 230.
• Grisebach, A. H. R. Flora of the British West Indian islands /by A.H.R. Grisebach. [1859]-18 London, L. Reeve, 1864. url p. 587, p. 733, p. 789.
• Guide to the Economic Museum of the New York Botanical Garden. New York, 1921. url p. 142.
• Hand-book of Indian flora; being a guide to all the flowering plants hitherto described as indigenous to the continent of India. [Madras?]Trabancore Sircar Press, 1864-69. url , , , .
• Hand-list of tender momocotyledons, excluding Orchideae, cultivated in the Royal Gardens, Kew. London, Printed for H. M. S. O., by Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1897. url p. 165.
• Hand-list of tender monocotyledons, excluding Orchideae, cultivated in the Royal Gardens, Kew. 1897. LondonPrinted for H.M. Stationery Off. by Eyre and Spottiswoode1897 url p. 165.
• Hooker, J. D. The botany of the Antarctic voyage of H.M. discovery ships Erebus and Terror in the Years 1839-1843: under the command of Captain Sir James Clark Ross /by Joseph Dalton Hooker. 2 1855 London: Reeve Brothers, 1844-60. url p. 322, p. 349, p. iii.
• Hooker, W. J. et al. Niger flora;or, An enumeration of the plants of western tropical Africa, collected by the late Dr. Theodore Vogel, botanist to the voyage of the expedition sent by Her Britannic Majesty to the river Niger in 1841, under the command of Capt. H. D. Trotter, R.N., &c.; including Spicilegia gorgonea, by P. B. Webb, esq., and Flora nigritiana, by Dr. J. D. Hooker. .. and George Bentham, esq. with a sketch of the life of Dr. Vogel. Ed. by Sir W. J. Hooker. .. With two views, a map, and fifty plates. 1849 London, H. Bailliere; [etc., etc.] 1849. url p. 539.
• Icones plantarum formosanarum nec non et contributiones ad floram formosanam: or, Icones of the plants of Formosa, and materials for a flora of the island, based on a study of the collections of the Botanical survey of the Government of Formosa / By B. Hayata. .. Taihoku: Bureau of Productive Industry, Government of Formosa, 1911-1921. url p. 42.
• Illustrations of the natural orders of plants with groups and descriptions. Reduced from the original folio ed. London: Sampson Low, Son, and Marston, 1868. url p. 417.
• Index of plants. 1912. Singapore, Printed at the Methodist Publishing House, 1912. url .
• Indian Museum notes. Calcutta: [Indian Museum]: 1889-1903. url , p. 134.
• Inventory of seeds and plants imported / U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D.C.: G.P.O., 1914-1924. url , , p. 100, p. 12, p. 15, p. 24, p. 40, p. 40, p. 46, p. 50, p. 54, p. 56, p. 57, p. 60, p. 62, p. 65, p. 7, p. 71, p. 8, p. 8, p. 89, p. 91, p. 96, p. 99.
• Journal and proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 7 1911 Calcutta, Asiatic Society of Bengal. url p. 57, p. 61.
• Journal of Hymenoptera research. Washington, D.C.: International Society of Hymenopterists, [1992- url p. 162.
• Journal of botany, British and foreign. 7 1869 London: Robert Hardwicke, 1863-1942. url p. 126, p. 266.
• Journal of botany: being a second series of the Botanical miscellany. 1 1834 London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green & Longman; Edinburgh: A. & C. Black, 1834-1842. url p. 29.
• Journal of ethnobiology. 12-13 1992-1993 Flagstaff, Ariz.: Center for Western Studies, 1981- url p. 240.
• Leaflets of Philippine botany. 6 1913-1914 Manila: Oriental Printing Co., 1906-1939. url p. 2175, p. 2533.
• Lindley, J. Paxton's flower garden /by Professor Lindley and Sir Joseph Paxton. 3 1853 London: Bradbury and Evans, [1850]-1853. url p. 58.
• List of intercepted plant pests / United States Department of Agriculture, Plant Quarantine and Control Administration. [Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O.], 1932- url p. 242, p. 362, p. 41.
• List of trees, shrubs, and principal climbers, etc., recorded from Burma: with vernacular names / by J.H. Lace. Rangoon, Burma: Supt., Govt. Print., 1922. url p. 221, p. 256, p. 329.
• Martin's Natural history / Translated from the thirty-fifth German edition, by Sarah A. Myers; containing two hundred and sixty-two beautifully colored illustrations; First [and second] series. New York: Phinney, Blakeman & Mason, 1861- url p. 351.
• Materials for a flora of the Malayan peninsula, by H. N. Ridley. Singapore, Printed at the Methodist publishing house, 1907. url p. 33, p. 33.
• Memoir of the late William Wright, M. D. with extracts from his correspondence, and a selection of his papers on medical and botanical subjects. Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1828. url p. 208.
• Memoirs / Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Brooklyn, N.Y.: The Garden, 1918-1936. url p. 37.
• Memoirs of the Torrey Botanical Club. 1 1890 Durham, N.C.: Published for the Club by the Seeman Printery, 1889- url p. 142.
• Narrative of the circumnavigation of the globe by the Austrian frigate Novara, (Commodore B. von Wullerstorf-Urbair, ): undertaken by order of the imperial government, in the years l857, 1858, & 1859, under the immediate auspices of His I. and R. Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-in-Chief of the Aust By Dr. Karl Scherzer. London: Saunders, Otley, 1861-63. url p. 245, p. 74.
• Nature et faune: revue internationale pour la conservation de la nature en Afrique = Wildlife and nature: international journal on nature conservation in Africa. Accra, Ghana: Bureau régional de la F.A.O. pour l'Afrique, url p. 54, p. 66.
• Nature. London, Macmillan. url p. 295, p. 471.
• Niger flora; or, An enumeration of the plants of western tropical Africa, collected by the late Dr. Theodore Vogel, botanist to the voyage of the expedition sent by Her Britannic Majesty to the river Niger in 1841, under the command of Capt. H. D. Trotter, R.N., &c.; includ London, H. Bailliere; [etc., etc.]1849. url p. 539.
• Nomenclature of plants; a text for the application by the case method of the International code of botanical nomenclature. New York, Ronald Press Co.[1958] url p. 139.
• Observations of a naturalist in the Pacific between 1896 and 1899 / by H.B. Guppy. London: Macmillan and Co., 1903-1906. url p. 412.
• Occasional papers of the Boston Society of Natural History. Boston, Boston Society of Natural History, 1869-1941. url p. 36.
• Official guide to the Botanic Gardens, Dominica: illustrated: with an index of the principal plants. Dominica: The Garden, 1922? url , , , p. 13.
• Official guide to the museums of economic botany. London, Printed for H.M. Stationary Off. by Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1895. url p. 18.
• Oliver, D. Flora of tropical Africa /by Daniel Oliver. .. assisted by other botanists. 7 1897-1898 London: L. Reeve and co., 1868-1999. url p. 414.
• Origin of cultivated plants / by Alphonse de Candolle. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1908. url p. 456, p. 77, p. 79, p. 80.
• Origin of cultivated plants, by Alphonse de Candolle. London, K. Paul, Trench, 1884. url p. 456, p. 77, p. 80.
• Origin of cultivated plants. By Alphonse de Candolle. New York, D. Appleton and company, 1902. url p. 456, p. 77, p. 79, p. 80.
• Origin of cultivated plants. New York, Appleton, 1892. url , , .
• Pamphlets on silviculture. [1899- url p. 1573, p. 1619.
• Physiology at the farm in aid of rearing and feeding the live stock. Edinburgh and London, W. Blackwood and sons[1867]. url p. 416, p. xxi.
• Phytologia. Bronx Park, New York, H.A. Gleason and H.N. Moldenke, url p. 177, p. 368, p. 374, p. 380.
• Plant names, scientific and popular, including in the case of each plant the correct botanical name in accordance with the reformed nomenclature, together with botanical and popular synonyms. .. Comp. from the most authentic sources by A. B. Lyons. Detroit, Nelson, Baker & Co., 1900. url p. 136.
• Plant physiology. Edited by R. B. Harvey and A. E. Murneck. 2d English ed., translated and rev. from the 5th Russian ed. Translated from the Russian ed. Translated from the Russian by Irene V. Krassovsky. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1938. url p. 347.
• Plants of the Bahamas, Jamaica and Grand Cayman, by A.S. Hitchcock. .. Issued March 9, 1893. St. Louis, 1893 url p. 136.
• Popular geography of plants; or, A botanical excursion round the world, by E.M.C.; ed. by Charles Daubeny. London, 1855. url p. 213.
• Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Philadelphia, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia url p. 357, p. 560, p. 844, p. 844.
• Proceedings of the First Agricultural Conference, Malaya, held at the Chamber of Commerce, Kuala Lumpur, April 25th to 28th 1917.. ..; ed. by L. Lewton-Brain and B. Bunting. Kuala Lumpur, Govt. Printer, 1917. url p. 147.
• Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Glasgow. Glasgow, Natural History Society of Glasgow. url .
• Promising root crops for the South. I.--Yautias, taros, and dasheens. Washington, Govt. print. off., 1910. url p. 33.
• Publication / Institute of Social Anthropology. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1944- url p. 138, p. 337, p. 342.
• Quarterly journal of microscopical science. London, J. and A. Churchill [etc.] url p. 301.
• Reise durch einige der mittlern und su?dlichen Vereinigten Nordamerikanischen Staaten, nach Ost-Florida und den Bahama Inseln unternommen in den jahren 1783 und 1784, von Johann David Scho?pf. .. Cincinnati, J.U. & C.G. Lloyd, 1911. url p. 32.
• Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1859: agriculture. Washington, D.C.: George Bowman, printer, 1860. url p. 310.
• Report: . .. Washington, Blair & Rives, printers, 1838 url p. 94, p. 96.
• Resources of the southern fields and forests, medical, economical, and agricultural; Charleston, Walker, Evans & Cogswell, printers, 1869. url p. 619.
• Science in Africa; a review of scientific research relating to tropical and southern Africa, by E.B. Worthington. .. issued by the Committee of the African research survey under the auspices of the Royal institute of international affairs. London, Oxford university press, 1938. url p. 360.
• Science. New York, N.Y.: [s.n.]1880- url p. 338.
• Scientific and applied pharmacognosy, intended for the use of students in pharmacy, as a hand book for pharmacists, and as a reference book for food and drug analysts and pharmacologists. New York, Wiley, 1920. url p. 109.
• Seeds and plants imported / U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C.: G.P.O., 1903-1913. url p. 100, p. 36, p. 56, p. 78, p. 97.
• Seemann, B. The botany of the voyage of H.M.S. Herald: under the command of Captain Henry Kellett, R.N., C.B., during the years 1845-51 /by Berthold Seemann. 1852-1857 London: Lovell Reeve, 1852-1857. url p. 73.
• Select extra-tropical plants readily eligible for industrial culture or naturalisation with indications of their native countries and some of their uses / by Baron Ferd. von Mueller. Melbourne: R. S. Brain, govt. printer, 1895. url p. 167, p. 169, p. 633, p. 634, p. 653.
• Select extra-tropical plants, readily eligible for industrial culture or naturalisation, with indications of their native countries and some of their uses. By Baron Ferd. von Mueller. .. Sydney, T. Richards, government printer, 1881. url p. 106, p. 107, p. 396.
• Select plants (exclusive of timber trees) readily eligible for Victorian industrial culture with indications of their native countries and some of their uses; an enumeration / offered by Ferd. von Mueller. Melbourne: s.n., 1872 url p. 45, p. 46.
• Sketch of the forestry of West Africa with particular reference to its present principal commercial products. London, S. Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, 1887. url .
• Smithsonian miscellaneous collections. 78 1927 Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1862-1968. url p. 11, p. 110, p. 123.
• Source book for African anthropology -- / by Wilfrid D. Hambly --. 111 text figures, 5 maps. Paul S. Martin -- editor. Chicago:Field Museum Press, 1937. url p. 41.
• Species Blancoanae: a critical revision of the Philippine species of plants described by Blanco and by Llanos /by E.D. Merrill. 1918 Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1918. url p. 102.
• Standardized plant names; a catalogue of approved scientific and common names of plants in American commerce. Salem, Mass., 1923. url p. 533.
• Sturtevant's notes on edible plants / Edited by U.P. Hedrick. Albany: J.B. Lyon, 1919. url p. 238.
• Text-book of pastoral and agricultural botany, for the study of the injurious and useful plants of country and farm, by John W. Harshberger. .. with 121 illustrations. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's Son & Co., [c1920] url p. 226, p. 279.
• Textbook of pastoral and agricultural botany, for the study of the injurious and useful plants of country and farm, by John W. Harshberger. .. with 121 illustrations. Philadelphia, P. Blakiston's Son & Co.[c1920] url p. 279.
• The American farmer's encyclopedia; embracing all the recent discoveries in agricultural chemistry, New York, A. O. Moore, 1858. url p. 1175.
• The Bahama flora, New York, The Authors, 1920. url .
• The Bahama flora, by Nathaniel Lord Britton and Charles Frederick Millspaugh. New York, The authors, 1920. url p. 79, p. 79, p. 79, p. 79.
• The California horticulturist and floral magazine. San Francisco, Calif.: F.A. Miller & Co., 1870- url p. 123, p. 123.
• The Farmer's magazine. [London: Rogerson and Tuxford, 1834-1881. url p. 30.
• The Garden: an illustrated weekly journal of gardening in all its branches. London: [s.n., url p. 38.
• The Gardeners' chronicle: a weekly illustrated journal of horticulture and allied subjects. London: [Gardeners Chronicle], 1874-1955. url p. 140, p. 237, p. 241, p. 266, p. 313, p. 385, p. 493.
• The Horticulturist and journal of rural art and rural taste. Albany, N.Y.: Luther Tucker, 1846-1875. url p. 507.
• The Journal of the Board of Commissioners of Agriculture. San Juan: [Board of Commissioners of Agriculture, 1917]. url p. 211, p. 232.
• The Journal of the Linnean Society. Botany. 24 1888 London: the Society: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts & Green: ||Williams and Norgate, 1865-1968. url p. 151, p. 195, p. 319, p. 478, p. 57, p. 686, p. 90.
• The Natural history of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island / edited by Carl Skottsberg. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksells Boktryckeri, 1920-1956. url .
• The New England farmer. Boston, Mass.: J. Nourse, 1848-1871. url p. 61.
• The Philippine journal of science. Manila: Bureau of Science url p. 146, p. 176, p. 228, p. 267, p. 298, p. 32, p. 376, p. 598, p. 655, p. 68.
• The Popular science monthly. New York, Popular Science Pub. Co., etc. url p. 495.
• The Review of applied entomology. Farnham Royal, Eng., etc.: Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, etc. url p. 598, p. 865.
• The Year-book of agriculture, or, The annual of agricultural progress and discovery / [edited] by David A. Wells. Philadelphia: Childs & Peterson, 1856. url p. 286.
• The agricultural and forest products of British West Africa, by Gerald C. Dudgeon. .. with a preface by Wyndham R. Dunstan. .. London, J. Murray, 1922. url p. 167, p. 167.
• The beginnings of agriculture in America. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1923. url p. 315, p. 63.
• The botany of Bihar and Orissa: an account of all the known indigenous plants of the province and of the most important or most commonly cultivated exotic ones / with maps and introduction by H. H. Haines. London: Printed by Adlard and sold by agents for Indian Official Publications, 1921-25. url p. 1252.
• The commercial products of India: being an abridgment of The dictionary of the economic products of India / by Sir George Watt; published under the authority of His Majesty's secretary of state for India in council. London: J. Murray, 1908. url p. 492.
• The correspondence of John Ray, consisting of selections from the philosophical letters published by Dr. Derham and original letters of John Ray in the collection of the British Museum / London: Printed for the Ray Society, 1848. url p. 288, p. 497.
• The correspondence of John Ray: consisting of selections from the philosophical letters published by Dr. Derham, and original letters of John Ray in the collection of the British Museum. Ed. by Edwin Lankester. London: Printed for the Ray Society, 1848. url p. 288, p. 497.
• The desert world. From the French of Arthur Mangin. Edited and enlarged by the translator of "The bird, by Michelet." With 160 illustrations by W. Freeman, Foulquier, and Yan Dargent. London, T. Nelson, 1869. url p. 242, p. 617.
• The differentiation and specificity of starches in relation to genera, species, etc.; stereochemistry applied to protoplasmic processes and products, and as a strictly scientific basis for the classification of plants and animals Washington, D.C.Carnegie institution of Washington1913 url p. 814.
• The farmer's and planter's encyclopaedia of rural affairs; embracing all the most recent discoveries in agricultural chemistry, suited to the comprehension of unscientific readers. By Cuthbert W. Johnson. .. With extensive additions adapting the work to the United States. .. By Gouverneur Emerson. .. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1868. url p. 1175.
• The farmer's and the planter's encyclopædia of rural affairs; Philadelphia, Lippincott, Grambo & co., 1851. url p. 1175.
• The flora of Barro Colorado Island, Panama, by Paul C. Standley. City of Washington, The Smithsonian Institution, 1927. url p. 13.
• The flora of British India /By J. D. Hooker assisted by various botanists. Published under the authority of the secretary of state for India in council. London: L. Reeve, 1875-97. url p. 295, p. 296.
• The flora of British India. London, L. Reeve & Co., 1875-97. url .
• The flora of St. Croix and the Virgin Islands, by Baron H.F.A. Eggers. Washington, Govt. Print. Off., 1879. url p. 11, p. 110.
• The flora of the American Virgin Islands / N.L. Britton. New York: New York Botanical Garden, 1918. url p. 37.
• The flora of the Dutch West Indian islands St. Eustatius, Saba and St. Martin. Leyden, Brill, 1909. url p. 309, p. 39.
• The flora of the presidency of Bombay / By Theodore Cooke. London: Taylor and Francis, 1903-08. url p. 759.
• The gardens' bulletin, Straits Settlements. Singapore: Straits Times Press, 1913-1941. url , , , , , , , , , , , , p. 129, p. 158, p. 19, p. 297, p. 306, p. 308, p. 371.
• The natural history of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island / edited by Carl Skottsberg. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksells Boktryckeri, 1920- url p. 17.
• The natural history review. Dublin: Hodges & Smith, 1854-1865. url p. 52.
• The naturalisation of animals & plants in New Zealand, Cambridge [Eng.]University Press, 1922. url .
• The naturalist in Bermuda; a sketch of the geology, zoology, and botany of that remarkable group of islands; together with meteorological observations. London, Reeves & Turner, 1859. url .
• The new American orchardist; Boston, Otis, Broaders, and company, 1844. url p. 364.
• The new American orchardist; or, An account of the most valuable varieties of fruit, of all climates, adapted to cultivation in the United States; with their history, modes of culture, management, uses, & c. With an appendix on v Boston: Otis, Broaders and Company, 1842. url p. 364.
• The polar and tropical worlds: a description of man and nature in the polar and equatorial regions of the globe / by G. Hartwig; edited, with additional chapters, by A.H. Guernsey. Guelph, Ont.: J.W. Lyon, 1874. url p. 555.
• The principles of vegetable-gardening. New York: Macmillan, [c1921] url .
• The standard cyclopedia of horticulture; a discussion, for the amateur, and the professional and commercial grower, of the kinds, characteristics and methods of cultivation of the species of plants grown in the regions of the United States a Illustrated with colored plates, four thousand engravings in the text, and ninety-six full-page cuts. New York, Macmillan, 1919 [c1914] url p. 1013, p. 3588.
• The travels and researches of Alexander von Humboldt: being a condensed narrative of his journeys in the equinoctial regions of America, and in Asiatic Russia: together with analysis of his more important investigations / by W. Macgillivray. New York, N.Y.: J. & J. Harper, 1833. url p. 334.
• The tropical world: aspects of man and nature in the equatorial regions of the globe. LondonLongmans, Green1873 url p. 170.
• The useful plants of the island of Guam; with an introductory account of the physical features and natural history of the island, of the character and history of its people, and of their agriculture / by William Edwin Safford. Washington, D.C.: Govt. Print. Off., 1905. url , p. 144, p. 153, p. 255, p. 257, p. 258, p. 259, p. 260, p. 262, p. 283, p. 330, p. 394, p. 395, p. 401, p. 8.
• The uses of plants: a manual of economic botany with special reference to vegetable products introduced during the last fifty years / by G. S. Boulger. London: Roper & Drowley, 1889. url p. 207.
• The vegetable kingdom: or, The structure, classification, and uses of plants, illustrated upon the natural system / by John Lindley. London: Bradbury and Evans, 1846. url p. 111, p. 211, p. 817.
• The wheat plant: its origin, culture, growth, development, composition, varieties, diseases, etc., etc.: together with a few remarks on Indian corn, its culture, etc. / by John H. Klippart. Cincinnati, Moore, Wilstach, Keys, & co., 1860. url p. 40.
• The year-book of agriculture: or The annual of agricultural progress and discovery for 1855 and 1856. Exhibiting the most important discoveries and improvements in agricultural mechanics, agricultural chemistry, agricultural and h by David A. Wells. Philadelphia: Childs & Peterson, 1856. url p. 286.
• Timehri. Demerara: "Argosy" url p. 196.
• Transactions and proceedings of the New Zealand Institute. Wellington: New Zealand Institute. url p. 14, p. 298, p. 298.
• Transactions of the American Institute of the City of New-York. [S.l.: s.n.], 1852- url p. 341.
• Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science. Springfield, Ill., Illinois State Academy of Science [etc.] url p. 255.
• Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, 2nd series: Botany 6 1901-1905 London. url p. 269.
• Travels in Brazil, in the years 1817-1820, : undertaken by command of His majesty the King of Bavaria by Dr. Joh.Babt. von Spix and Dr. C. F. Phil. von Martius / London, Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green;1824. url p. 176.
• Travels in the Confederation, 1783-1784. From the German. Translated and edited by Alfred J. Morrison. Philadelphia, W.J. Campbell, 1911. url p. 269.
• Trees and shrubs of Mexico / By Paul C. Standley. Washington, Govt. Print. Off., 1920-1926. url p. 142, p. 143.
• Trinidad, its geography, natural resources, administration, present condition, and prospects. London, Cassell, 1884. url p. 232.
• Tropical agriculture: the climate, soils, cultural methods, crops, live stock, commercial importance and opportunities of the tropics / London: D. Appleton and Company, 1916. url .
• Tropical agriculture; the climate, soils, cultural methods, crops, live stock, commercial importance and opportunities of the tropics / by Earley Vernon Wilcox. London: D. Appleton and Company, 1916. url p. 153, p. 364.
• Vernacular list of trees, shrubs, and woody climbers in the Madras Presidency. Madras, Printed by the Superintendant, Government Press, 1915. url p. 1013, p. 1018, p. 1020, p. 1027, p. 1028, p. 323, p. 811, p. 879, p. 910, p. 939, p. 984, p. 988.
• Viti: an account of a government mission to the Vitian or Fijian Islands in the years 1860-61. By Berthold Seemann. . Cambridge, Macmillan & Co., 1862 url p. 443.
• Wanderings in South America, the North-west of the United States, and the Antilles, in the years 1812, 1816, 1820, & 1824. With original instructions for the perfect preservation of birds, etc., for cabinets of natural history. London, Macmillan, 1907. url .
• Wanderings in South America, the north-west of the United States, and the Antilles, in the years 1812, 1816, 1820, & 1824 with original instructions for the perfect preservation of birds, etc. for cabinets of natural history / Charles Waterton. London;Macmillan, 1889. url .
• World Atlas of Biodiversity: earth's living resources in the 21st century UNEP-WCMC url p. 248.
• [Pamphlets on agriculture in Guam] S.l.: s.n., 1905-1916 url p. 255, p. 257, p. 258, p. 259, p. 395, p. 401, p. 8.
• [Publications] - Bureau of Government Laboratories. Manila, Bureau of Public Printing, 1903-1906. url p. 116, p. 118, p. 86.
• Ting Chih-tsun, Chang Mei-chen & Ling Ping-ping. 1985. Dioscoreaceae. In: Pei Chien & Ting Chih-tsun, eds., Fl. Reipubl. Popularis Sin. 16(1) : 54--120.

Notes

Contributors

• Brands, S.J. (comp.) 1989-present. The Taxonomicon. Universal Taxonomic Services, Zwaag, The Netherlands. Accessed January 10, 2012.

Data Sources

Accessed through GBIF Data Portal November 12, 2007:

• Comisión nacional para el conocimiento y uso de la biodiversidad, Banco Nacional de Germoplasma Vegetal, México
• Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden Virtual Herbarium Darwin Core format
• Herbarium of the University of Aarhus, The AAU Herbarium Database
• Herbier de la Guyane, Herbier de la Guyane
• Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad
• , Biodiversidad de Costa Rica
• International Plant Genetic Resources Institute(IPGRI), The System-wide Information Network for Genetic Resources
• Missouri Botanical Garden, Missouri Botanical Garden
• National Herbarium of New South Wales, Plants of Papua New Guinea
• Taiwan Biodiversity Information Facility, Magnoliophyta

Identifiers

• Biodiversity Heritage Library NamebankID: 2662906
• Catalogue of Life Accepted Name Code: Kew-239747
• Global Biodiversity Information Facility Taxonkey: 13754997
• Globally Unique Identifier: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:70824-3
• GRIN Nomen Number: 14175
• Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) Taxonomic Serial Number (TSN): 43372
• International Plant Names Index (IPNI) ID: 70824-3
• MoBot NameID: 11000003
• Natural Heritage Network Species Identifier: PMDIO01010
• U.S.D.A. Plant Symbol: DIAL2
• Zipcode Zoo Species Identifier: 35651

Footnotes

1. Chih-chi Ting & Michael G. Gilbert "Dioscoreaceae". in Flora of China Vol. 24 Page 276. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org. [back]
2. "Dioscorea". in Flora of China Vol. 24 Page 276. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org. [back]
3. "Dioscorea alata". in Flora of North America Vol. 26 Page 481, 484. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org. [back]
4. Mean = 249.150 meters (817.421 feet), Standard Deviation = 993.410 based on 155 observations. Altitude information for each observation from British Oceanographic Data Centre. [back]

©2004-2012 David Stang. All rights reserved.