Colocasia esculenta

Taxonomy

Unambiguous Synonyms:

1. Alocasia dussii Dammer
2. Alocasia illustris W.Bull
3. Aron colocasium (L.) St.-Lag.
4. Arum chinense L.
5. Arum colocasia L.
6. Arum colocasioides Desf.
7. Arum esculentum L.
8. Arum esculentum Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 2: 965. 1753
9. Arum lividum Salisb.
10. Arum nymphaeifolium (Vent.) Roxb.
11. Arum peltatum Lam.
12. Caladium acre R.Br.
13. Caladium colocasia (L.) W.Wight
14. Caladium colocasioides (Desf.) Brongn.
15. Caladium esculentum (L.) Vent.
16. Caladium glycyrrhizum Fraser
17. Caladium nymphaeaefolium
18. Caladium violaceum Desf.
19. Caladium violaceum Engl.
20. Caladium violaceum hort.,
21. Calla gaby Blanco
22. Calla virosa Roxb.
23. Colocasia acris (R.Br.) Schott
24. Colocasia aegyptiaca Samp.
25. Colocasia antiquorum Schott
26. Colocasia antiquorum forma acuatica Makino
27. Colocasia antiquorum forma eguimo Makino
28. Colocasia antiquorum forma oyasetage Makino
29. Colocasia antiquorum forma purpurea Makino
30. Colocasia antiquorum forma yamamotoi Makino
31. Colocasia antiquorum var. acris
32. Colocasia antiquorum var. aquatilis
33. Colocasia antiquorum var. esculenta
34. Colocasia antiquorum var. fontanesii
35. Colocasia antiquorum var. globulifera
36. Colocasia antiquorum var. illustris
37. Colocasia antiquorum var. multifolia Makino
38. Colocasia antiquorum var. nymphaeifolia
39. Colocasia antiquorum var. patens Makino
40. Colocasia antiquorum var. rosea Makino
41. Colocasia antiquorum var. rupicola Haines
42. Colocasia antiquorum var. stolonifera Haines
43. Colocasia antiquorum var. typica
44. Colocasia colocasia (L.) Huth
45. Colocasia esculenta forma ebiimo Makino
46. Colocasia esculenta forma rotundifolia Makino
47. Colocasia esculenta var. acris
48. Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum (Schott) F.T.Hubb. and Rehder
49. Colocasia esculenta var. aquatilis Hassk.
50. Colocasia esculenta var. euchlora
51. Colocasia esculenta var. fontanesii
52. Colocasia esculenta var. globulifera
53. Colocasia esculenta var. illustris
54. Colocasia esculenta var. rupicola (Haines) H.B.Naithani
55. Colocasia esculenta var. stolonifera (Haines) H.B.Naithani
56. Colocasia esculenta var. typica
57. Colocasia euchlora K.Koch and Linden
58. Colocasia fontanesii Schott
59. Colocasia gracilis Engl.
60. Colocasia himalensis Royle
61. Colocasia neocaledonica Van Houtte
62. Colocasia nymphaeifolia (Vent.) Kunth
63. Colocasia peltata (Lam.) Samp.
64. Colocasia peregrina
65. Colocasia tonoimo Nakai
66. Colocasia vera Hassk.
67. Colocasia violacea (Desf.) auct.
68. Colocasia virosa (Roxb.) Kunth
69. Colocasia vulgaris Raf.
70. Leucocasia esculenta (L.) Nakai
71. Steudnera virosa (Roxb.) Prain
72. Zantedeschia virosa (Roxb.) K.Koch

Notes:

Name Status: Accepted Name. Latest taxonomic scrutiny: Govaerts R., 11-Nov-2003.

Place of publication: H. Schott & S. L. Endlicher, Melet. bot. 18. 1832

Name verified on 01-Nov-1985 by ARS Systematic Botanists. Last updated: 12-Jul-1999

Physical Description

Family Araceae:

Herbs, perennial, wetland or terrestrial, occasionally emergent or floating, [often epiphytic or climbing], usually with milky or watery latex, rarely colored. Rhizomes, corms, or stolons present; rhizomes vertical or horizontal, creeping at or near surface, sometimes branched; corms underground, starchy; stolons at or near surface. Stems absent [sometimes aboveground or aerial]. Cataphylls usually present. Leaves rarely solitary, alternate or clustered; petiole rarely absent, with sheathing base; blade simple or compound [occasionally perforate], elliptic to obovate or spatulate, occasionally sagittate-cordate, larger than 1.5 cm; venation parallel or pinnate- or palmate-netted. Inflorescences spadices, each with 3--900 usually tightly grouped, sessile flowers, subtended by spathe; spathe rarely absent, persistent (sometimes only proximally) or deciduous, variously colored; spadix cylindric or ovoid, various parts occasionally naked or with sterile flowers. Flowers bisexual or unisexual, staminate and pistillate usually on same plants or functionally on different plants, staminate flowers distal to pistillate when unisexual; perianth absent or present; stamens 2--12, distinct or connate in synandria; ovaryies 1, 1--3(--many) -locular, sessile or embedded in spadix; styles 1; stigmas hemispheric, capitate, or discoid [sometimes strongly lobed]. Fruits berries, distinct or connate at maturity. Seeds 1--40(--many) per berry.

Genera 105, species more than 3300 (8 genera, 10 species in the flora; species in 10 additional genera may persist locally within flora area, see talbe 203.1) : nearly worldwide, primarily tropical regions.

Araceae are best characterized by the inflorescence, a fleshy cylindric or ovoid, unbranched spadix subtended or surrounded by a spathe. True spathes are absent in the Nearctic genus Orontium and in the Australian genus Gymnostachys. Other plant families with a compressed spadix-like inflorescence, such as Piperaceae and Cyclanthaceae, either do not have a structure equivalent to a spathe (Piperaceae) or have early-deciduous bracts (Cyclanthaceae) . Plants are usually glabrous, rarely pubescent or spiny (pubescent in Pistia) . Many Araceae exhibit typical monocotyledonous parallel leaf venation, but some genera have net leaf venation more typical of dicotyledons.

Infrafamilial classification of the Araceae is under active study. The only classification of the family to date to utilize modern phylogenetic techniques (S. J. Mayo et al. 1997) recognizes seven subfamilies, of which three are represented in native temperate North American aroid flora: Orontioideae (Orontium, Symplocarpus, Lysichiton) ; Calloideae (Calla) ; and Aroideae (Peltandra, Arisaema, and Pistia) . Acorus, a genus historically included in Araceae, is treated as a separate family in theat flora based on extensive morphologic and chemical evidence that supports its removal from Arales (M. H. Grayum 1987) .

The number of genera of Araceae occurring in temperate North America is low in comparison with other continents, and primitive taxa are disproportionately represented. Orontioideae and Calloideae, which include four of the seven native genera found in the flora area, are the basal clades within Araceae. Plants in these subfamilies possess the primitive states for many characteristics in Araceae and share few derived characteristics with other aroid genera (M. H. Grayum 1990) . The more advanced genera native to the flora area include one genus endemic to eastern North America (Peltandra), a pantropical genus with an uncertain native distribution (Pistia), and a genus clearly Eurasian in origin (Arisaema) .

Araceae contain crystals of calcium oxalate, which are often cited as causing the intense irritation experienced when handling or consuming the raw plant tissue of many genera in the family. This supposition is contradicted by the fact that although irritation generally is not produced by properly cooked plants, the crystals remain after heating. Other compounds must therefore be involved with causing this reaction. Studies of Dieffenbachia demonstrated that a proteolytic enzyme, as well as other compounds, are responsible for the severe irritation caused by this plant and that raphides of calcium oxalate do not play a major role (J. Arditti and E. Rodriguez 1982) . Whether irritation is caused by enzymes or crystals, that aspect of Araceae has resulted in aroid genera being included in many lists of poisonous plants (e.g., K. F. Lampe and M. A. McCann 1985; G. A. Mulligan and D. B. Munro 1990; K. D. Perkins and W. W. Payne 1978) .

Despite the toxic effects of Araceae, species of several genera are cultivated as food plants, mainly as subsistence crops in tropical areas. The major edible Araceae are Colocasia esculenta and several species of Xanthosoma, grown primarily for their corms and sometimes for their leaves. Most North American species of Araceae were historically used by Native Americans, as both food and medicine (T. Plowman 1969) . The family, is currently more valued for its many ornamental species, and is the most important family in North America for indoor foliage plants (T. B. Croat 1994) . Araceae commonly grown as ornamentals in American homes include species of Aglaonema (Chinese-evergreen), Anthurium, Caladium, Dieffenbachia (dumbcane), Epipremnum (golden pothos), Philodendron, Spathiphyllum, Syngonium, and Zantedeschia (calla-lily) .

Plants of some cultivated species of Araceae escape and may persist or naturalize, especially in warmer climates. One of these species, Colocasia esculenta, is widespread enough to warrant full inclusion in the flora, but other introduced species of Araceae are very local in occurrence. Uncommon species represented by herbarium specimens or literature reports as escaped or persisting from cultivation are listed (table 203.1) with distinguishing characteristics and areas of occurrence.^[1]

Genus Colocasia:

Herbs, wetland [or terrestrial]. Stolons with nodes produced at or near surface; corms underground [aboveground], tuberous. Leaves appearing before flowers, several, clustered apically, erect; petiole usually longer than blade; blade green to dark green or glaucous blue-green adaxially, simple, peltate, ovate- or sagittate-cordate, basal lobes rounded, apex mucronate; primary lateral veins parallel, secondary lateral veins netted. Inflorescences: peduncle erect, shorter than leaves, apex not swollen; spathe tube green; spathe blade orange, opening basally and reflexing apically at anthesis to expose spadix; spadix slender, tapering, usually terminated by sterile appendage. Flowers unisexual, staminate and pistillate on same plant; pistillate flowers covering base of spadix, staminate flowers apical, sterile flowers between pistillate and staminate flowers; perianth absent. Fruits greenish to whitish or red. Seeds 0--5(--35), mucilage probably present. x = 7.

Species 7 (1 in the flora) : southeastern Asia, 1 species cultivated and escaping in the tropics and subtropics worldwide.

Species in the genus Colocasia have received little attention except for C. esculenta, commonly called taro, which is cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics for its starchy, edible corms. The origin of the cultivated species is uncertain, but all other species in the genus occur in northeastern India and southeastern Asia. Prior to modernization, taro was especially important on the Pacific Islands. Hawaii was a main center of taro cultivation, and the crop played an important role in native culture. About 150 varieties of C. esculenta were developed on Hawaii, including ones those specifically grown for poi, a fermented paste made from crushed, cooked corms (A. B. Greenwell 1947) .

Colocasia esculenta was probably brought to the Caribbean and North America from Africa as part of the slave trade. In the southeastern United States, taro was commonly cultivated in the kitchen gardens of slaves and their free descendants (W. Bartram 1791) . In the early 1900s, the U.S. Department of Agriculture attempted a campaign to introduce taro as a new root crop in frost-free zones in the southern United States (O. W. Barrett and O. F. Cook 1910) . Promotional literature, which included cultivation techniques and recipes for use, was distributed to encourage farmers to try this new crop, but taro was never accepted as a substitute for potatoes (R. A. Young 1936) .

Plants of Colocasia esculenta are known by many common names, including taro, cocoyam, dasheen, eddo, malanga, tannia, and others. Many of these same names are also applied to species of Xanthosoma, a New World aroid also cultivated for its starchy corms, which is often confused with Colocasia (see S. K. O'Hair and M. P. Asokan 1986 for a review of edible aroids) . Edible taxa in the two genera can be readily distinguished by the peltate leaves in Colocasia and absence of a sterile tip on the spadix in Xanthosoma.^[2]

Species Colocasia esculenta:

Corms underground, starchy; stolons elongate, with nodes produced at or near surface, spreading horizontally. Leaves: petiole green, often purple apically, 30--80(--180) cm, spongy and filled with air spaces; blade green to dark green or glaucous blue-green on adaxial surface, usually with red or purple spot at point of petiole attachment, peltate for 2.5--7 cm, 17--70 ´ 10--40 cm; primary lateral veins parallel, secondary lateral veins netted, forming collective vein between primary lateral veins; apex mucronate. Inflorescences: spathe 20--35 cm; tube green; blade orange outside and in, opening basally and reflexing apically at anthesis to expose spadix, more than 3 times longer than tube; spadix 9--15 cm. Flowers: pistillate flowers pea green, interspersed with white pistillodes; ovaries 1-locular; ovules 36--67; sterile flowers white to pale yellow; staminate flowers and sterile tip pale orange, stamens 3--6, connate. Fruits orange. Seeds 1--1.5 mm, not observed in flora area. 2n = 28, 42 (Old World). [source]

Weedy plants of Colocasia esculenta in the United States are essentially all one morphologic form (usually with long stolons and with a red to purple spot on the adaxially surface of on the leaf opposite the point junction where of the petiole joins the leaf and blade and with long stolons). This taxon has been called C. esculenta var. aquatilis Hasskarl in some treatments (K. A. Wilson 1960). Other forms of C. esculenta are cultivated in the flora area both for food and as ornamentals. The species is extremely variable and many varieties have been recognized taxonomically with little of agreement on the application of names. Because of their weedy status and their infrequent flowering, specimens of C. esculenta are not frequently collected, and the distribution indicated here reflects this deficiency. Plants may occur beyond the boundary outlined on the map, but the species does not become established in areas subjected to cold temperatures. [source]

Flowers: Flower Color: goldyellow-orange

Images:

Distribution

Range and Population

Trop. Asia to SW. Pacific, widely cultivated elsewere

Native: New Zealand, Probable Origin Tropical Asia, West Indies, Widely Cultivated in Tropics.

Habitat

Usually forming large colonies along streams, ponds, ditches, canals, and other wet areas; 0--100 m^[3].

Growth

Culture: Space 18-24" apart.

Soil: Minimum pH: 6.1 • Maximum pH: 7.5

Sunlight: Sun Exposure: 3-5 hours full sun recommended.

Moisture: Water Requirements: 0-12" water depth.

Temperature: Cold Hardiness: 8a, 8b, 9a, 9b, 10a, 10b, 11. (map)

Similar Species

Members of the genus Colocasia:

There are approximately 101 species, subspecies, varieties, forms, and cultivars in this genus. Here are just 100 of them: C. affinis (Black Princess Taro) · C. affinis 'Roquefort' · C. affinis var. jeningsii · C. alba · C. antiquorum 'Illustris' (Imperial Taro) · C. avellanae · C. basistriga · C. betulae · C. bicolor · C. coryli · C. esculenta (Black Magic) · C. esculenta 'Antiquorum' (Tropical Imperial Taro) · C. esculenta 'Big Dipper' (Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Black Magic' (Black Magic Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Black Marble' · C. esculenta 'Black Ruffles' (Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Black Runner' (Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Bloody Mary' (Red Stem Taro) · C. esculenta 'Bun-long' · C. esculenta 'Bunn Long' (Taro) · C. esculenta 'Burgundy Stem' (Burgundy Stem Taro) · C. esculenta 'Chicago Harlequin' (Striped Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Coffee Cups' (Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Elepaio Keiki' · C. esculenta 'Elepaio' (Variegated Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Euchlora' · C. esculenta'Excalibur' (Coco Yam) · C. esculenta 'Fontanesii' (Black Stem Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Fontenesii' (Black Stemmed Taro) · C. esculenta 'Hilo Beauty' · C. esculenta 'Illustria' (Taro) · C. esculenta 'Japanese Cranberry' · C. esculenta 'Kakakura Ula Ula' (Vegetable Leaf Taro) · C. esculenta 'Maea' (Vegetable Leaf Taro) · C. esculenta 'Miranda' (Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Nancy's Revenge' · C. esculenta 'Nancyana' (Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Nigrescens' · C. esculenta 'Palau Keiki' · C. esculenta 'Pii Alii' (Vegetable Taro) · C. esculenta 'Plasma Lime' (Giant Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Purple Stem' · C. esculenta 'Rhubarb' (Rhubarb Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Ruffles' (Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta 'Silver Splash' · C. esculenta 'Ulaula Kumu-oha' · C. esculenta 'Xcintho' · C. esculenta 'Yellow Splash' (Elephant Ear) · C. esculenta (L.) Schott var. aquatilis Hassk. · C. esculenta (L.) Schott var. esculenta · C. esculenta burgundy-stemmed · C. esculenta var. esculenta · C. esculenta var. Illustrio (Taro) · C. esculenta var. illustris (Imperial Taro) · C. esculenta var. Jenningsii (Black Princess Taro) · C. esculentum · C. fallax (Silver Leaf Elephant Ear) · C. flavicornis (Yellowhorn) · C. fontanesi · C. formosana · C. gaoligongensis · C. gigantea (Giant Elephant Ear) · C. gigantea 'Thailand Giant Strain' (Super Size Elephant Ear) · C. gongii · C. grisescens · C. heterochroma · C. hongkongensis · C. infanta · C. konishii · C. latifolia · C. lihengiae · C. maclurei · C. macrorrhiza · C. macrorrhiza var. brisbanica · C. mannii · C. marchalii · C. medionigra · C. melanotica · C. menglaensis · C. multiflora (Elephant Ear) · C. multiflora 'Black Marble' (Elephant Ear) · C. multiflora 'Midnight' (Elephant Ear) · C. neo-caledonica · C. neo-gufreensis · C. nitida · C. obtusiloba · C. oresbia · C. propinguilinea (Close-Banded Demas) · C. protensa · C. ramosa · C. rubra (Ruby Taro) · C. seminigra · C. suzukii · C. tibetensis · C. trilinea · C. tristis · C. umbrosa · C. umbrossisima · C. wendlandii · C. yunnanensis

Bibliography

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Notes

Contributors:

• "Colocasia esculenta". in Flora of North America Vol. 22. Published by Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
• Bisby, F.A., Y.R. Roskov, M.A. Ruggiero, T.M. Orrell, L.E. Paglinawan, P.W. Brewer, N. Bailly, J. van Hertum, eds (2007). Species 2000 and ITIS Catalogue of Life: 2007 Annual Checklist. Species 2000: Reading, U.K.
• Brands, S.J. (comp.) 1989-2007. Systema Naturae 2000. The Taxonomicon. Universal Taxonomic Services, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Accessed March 23, 2007.
• Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Accessed March 26, 2007. http://www.gbif.org Mediated distribution data from provider.
• The International Plant Names Index. Accessed Jan 19, 2007.
• USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. URL (April 26, 2008)
• World Checklist of Selected Plant FamiliesFeb 2, 2006.

Data Sources:

Accessed through GBIF Data Portal November 15, 2007:

• Australian National Herbarium
• , Australian National Herbarium
• Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Bishop Museum Natural History Specimen Data
• Comisión nacional para el conocimiento y uso de la biodiversidad, Herbario del Instituto de Ecología, A.C., México
• Herbarium of the University of Aarhus, The AAU Herbarium Database
• Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad
• , Biodiversidad de Costa Rica
• Missouri Botanical Garden, Missouri Botanical Garden
• National Herbarium of New South Wales, NSW herbarium collection
• National Herbarium of New South Wales, Plants of Papua New Guinea
• National Institute of Genetics, ROIS, Herbarium Specimens of Museum of Nature and Human Activities, Hyogo Pref., Japan
• Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
• USDA PLANTS, USDA PLANTS Database
• University of Alabama Biodiversity and Systematics, Herbarium

Identifiers:

• Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) Taxonomic Serial Number (TSN): 42549
• Global Biodiversity Information Facility Taxonkey: 14252956
• Globally Unique Identifier: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:86083-3
• Natural Heritage Network Species Identifier: PMARA08010
• U.S.D.A. Plant Symbol: COESA2
• Zipcode Zoo Species Identifier: 23018

Footnotes:

1. Sue A. Thompson "Araceae". in Flora of North America Vol. 22. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
2. Sue A. Thompson "Colocasia". in Flora of North America Vol. 22. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
3. "Colocasia esculenta". in Flora of North America Vol. 22. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.