The Poaceae (also known as the Gramineae) is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocot flowering plants. Members of this family are commonly called (land) grasses, although the term (land) "grass" is also applied to plants that are not in the Poaceae lineage, including the rushes (Juncaceae) and sedges (Cyperaceae). As for the seagrasses, they all belong to the Alismatales, a different monocot order altogether. This broad and general use of the word "grass" has led to plants of the Poaceae often being called "true grasses". With over 10,025 currently accepted species, the Poaceae represent the fifth largest plant family. Only the Orchidaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Rubiaceae have more species.2]
Plant communities dominated by Poaceae are called grasslands; grasslands are estimated to comprise 20% of the vegetation
cover of the Earth. Grass species also occur in many other habitats not formally considered to be grasslands, including different types of wetlands (e.g., fens, marshes), forests and tundra.
Poaceae are often considered to be the most important of all plant families to human economies: it includes the staple food grains and cereal crops grown around the world, lawn and forage grasses, and bamboo, which is widely used for construction throughout east Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Civilization was founded largely on the ability to domesticate cereal grass crops around the world.
Grasses generally have t
he following characteristics (the image
gallery can be used for reference):
Poaceae have hollow stems called culms, which are plugged (solid) at intervals called nodes, the points along the culm at which leaves arise. Grass leaves are alternate, distichous (in one plane) or rarely spiral, and parallel-veined. Each leaf is differentiated into a lower sheath, which hugs the stem for a distance and a blade with margins usually entire. The leaf blades of many grasses are hardened with silica phytoliths, which helps discourage grazing animals. In some grasses (such as sword grass), this makes the edges of the grass blades sharp enough to cut human skin. A membranous appendage or fringe of hairs, called the ligule, lies at the junction between sheath and blade, preventing water or insects from penetrating into the sheath.
Parts of a spikelet
Flowers of Poaceae are characteristically arranged in spikelets, each spikelet having one or more florets (the spikelets are further grouped into panicles or spikes). A spikelet consists of two (or sometimes fewer) bracts at the base, called glumes, followed by one or more florets. A floret consists of the flower surrounded by two bracts called the lemma (the external one) and the palea (the internal). The flowers are usually hermaphroditic (maize, monoecious, is an exception) and pollination is always anemophilous, that is, by wind. The perianth is reduced to two scales, called lodicules, that expand and contract to spread the lemma and palea; these are generally interpreted to be modified sepals. This complex structure can be seen in the image on the right, portraying a wheat (Triticum aestivum) spike.
The fruit of Poaceae is a caryopsis, in which the seed coat is fused
to the fruit wall and thus, not separable from it (as in a maize kernel).
Grass blades grow at the base of the blade and not from elongated stem tips. This low growth point evolved in response to grazing animals and allows grasses to be grazed or mown regularly without severe damage to the plant.[3]
Three general classifications of growth habit present in grasses: bunch-type (also called caespitose), stoloniferous, and rhizomatous.
The success of the grasses lies in part
in their morphology and growth
processes, and in part in their physiological diversity. Most of the grasses divide into two physiological groups, using the C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways for carbon fixation. The C4 grasses have a photosynthetic pathway linked to specialized Kranz leaf anatomy that particularly adapts them to hot climates and an atmosphere low in carbon dioxide.
C3 grasses are referred to as "cool season" grasses, while C4 plants are considered "warm season" grasses; they may be either annual or perennial.
Annual cool season - wheat, rye, annual bluegrass (annual meadowgrass, Poa annua), and oat
Perennial cool season - orchardgrass (cocksfoot, Dactylis glomerata), fescue (Festuca spp), Kentucky bluegrass and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne)
Annual warm season - corn, sudangrass, and pearl millet
Perennial warm season - big bluestem, indiangrass, bermudagrass and switchgrass.[4]
Biomes dominated by grasses are called grasslands. If only large contiguous areas of grasslands are counted, these biomes cover 31% of the
planet's land.[5] Grasslands go by various names depending on location, including pampas, plains, steppes, or prairie.
In addition to their use as forage worldwide by many grazing mammals, such as cattle and other livestock, deer, and elephants, grasses are used as food plants by many species of butterflies and moths; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on grasses.
The evolution of large grazing animals in the Cenozoic has contributed to the spread of grasses. Without large grazers, a clearcut of fire-destroyed area would soon be colonized by grasses and, if there is enough rain, tree seedlings. The tree seedlings would eventually produce shade, which kills most grasses. Large animals, however, trample the seedlings, killing the trees. Grasses persist because their lack of woody stems helps them to resist the damage of trampling.[6]
Until recently, grasses were thought to have evolved around 55 million years ago, based on fossil records. However, recent findings of 65-million-year-old phytoliths resembling grass phytoliths (including ancestors of rice and bamboo) in Cretaceous dinosaur coprolites,[1][7] may place the diversification of grasses to an earlier date. Indeed, revised dating of the origins of the rice tribe Oryzeae have been led to the suggestion that the date might be pushed back as early as 107 Ma to 129 Ma.[8]
The relationships among the subfamilies Bambusoideae
, Ehrhartoideae and
Pooideae in the BEP clade have been resolved: Bambusoideae and Pooideae are more closely related than Ehrhartoideae.[9] This separation occurred within a relatively short time span (~4 million years).
The grass family is one of the most widely distributed and abundant groups of plants on Earth. They are found on every continent, and are essentially only absent from central Greenland and much of Antarctica.[2]
The most recent classification of the grass family[citation needed] recognizes 12 subfamilies:
Anomochlooideae, a small lineage of broad-leaved grasses that includes two genera (Anomochloa, Streptochaeta)
Pharoideae, a small lineage of grasses that includes three genera, including Pharus and Leptaspis
Puelioideae, a small lineage that includes the African genus Puelia
Pooideae, including wheat,
barley, oats, brome-grass (Bromus), reed-grasses (Calamagrostis) and many lawn and pasture grasses
Bambusoideae, including bamboo
Ehrhartoideae, including rice, wild rice
Arundinoideae, including giant reed, common reed
Centothecoideae, a small subfamily of 11 genera that is sometimes included in Panicoideae
Chloridoideae, including the lovegrasses (Eragrostis, about 350 species, including teff), dropseeds (Sporobolus, some 160 species), finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.), and the muhly grasses (Muhlenbergia, about 175 species)
Panicoideae, including panic grass, maize, sorghum, sugarcane, most millets, fonio, and bluestem grasses
Micrairoideae
Danthonioideae, including pampas grass
Depending on the classification followed, the family includes approximately 668 genera.[2]
The Poaceae was named by John Hendley Barnhart in 1895,[10] based on the tribe Poeae (described in 1814 by Robert Brown), and the type genus Poa (described in 1753 by Linnaeus). The term is derived from the Ancient Greek term for "grass".
Grasses are, in human terms, perhaps the most economically important plant family. Grasses'
economic importance stems from several areas, including food production, industry, and lawns.
Food production
Agricultural grasses grown for their edible seeds are called cereals. Three cereals ? rice, wheat, and maize (corn) ? provide more than half of all calories eaten by humans.[11] Of all crops, 70% are grasses.[12] Cereals constitute the major source of carbohydrates for humans and perhaps the major source of protein, and include rice in southern and eastern Asia, maize in Central and South America, and wheat and barley in Europe, northern Asia and the Americas.
Sugarcane is the major source of sugar production. Many other grasses are grown for forage and fodder for animal feed, particularly for sheep and cattle, thereby indirectly providing more
human calories.
Industry
Grasses are used for construction. Scaffolding made from bamboo is able to withstand typhoon-force winds that would break steel scaffolding.[5] Larger bamboos and Arundo donax have stout culms that can be used in a manner similar to timber, and grass roots stabilize the sod of sod houses. Arundo is used to make reeds for woodwind instruments, and bamboo is used for innumerable implements.
Grass fiber can be used for making paper, and for biofuel production.
Phragmites australis (common reed) is important in water treatment, wetland habitat preservation and land reclamation in Afro-Eurasia.
Lawn and ornamental grasses
Grasses are the primary plant used in lawns, which themselves derive from grazed grasslands in Europe. They also provide an important means of erosion control (e.g., along
roadsides), especially on sloping land.
Although supplanted by artificial turf in some games, grasses are still an important covering of playing surfaces in many sports, including football, tennis, golf, cricket, and softball/baseball.
Ornamental grasses, such as perennial bunch grasses, are used in many styles of garden design for their foliage, inflorescences, seed heads, and slope stabilization. They are often used in natural landscaping, xeriscaping, contemporary or modern landscaping, wildlife gardening, and native plant gardening.
Grasses have long
had significance in human society. They have been cultivated as a food source for domesticated animals for up to 10,000 years, and have been used to make paper since the second century AD.[citation needed] Also, the primary ingredient of beer is usually barley or wheat, both of which have been used for this purpose for over 4,000 years.[citation needed]
Some common aphorisms involve grass. For example:
"The grass is always greener on the other side" suggests an alternate state of affairs will always seem preferable to one's own.
"Don't let the grass grow under your feet" tells someone to get moving.
"A snake in the grass" means dangers that are hidden.
"When elephants fight, it is the grass which
suffers" tells of bystanders caught in the crossfire.
A folk myth about grass is that it refuses to grow where any violent death has occurred.[13]
Grass blades grow at the base of the blade and not from elongated stem tips. This low growth point evolved in response to grazing animals and allows grasses to be grazed or mown regularly without severe damage to the plant.[3]
Three general classifications of growth habit present in grasses: bunch-type (also called caespitose), stoloniferous, and rhizomatous.
The success of the grasses lies in part in their morphology and growth processes, and in part in their physiological diversity. Most of the grasses divide into two physiological groups, using the C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways for carbon fixation. The C4 grasses have a photosynthetic pathway linked to specialized Kranz leaf anatomy that parti
cularly adapts them to hot climates and
an atmosphere low in carbon dioxide.
C3 grasses are referred to as "cool season" grasses, while C4 plants are considered "warm season" grasses; they may be either annual or perennial.
Annual cool season - wheat, rye, annual bluegrass (annual meadowgrass, Poa annua), and oat
Perennial cool season - orchardgrass (cocksfoot, Dactylis glomerata), fescue (Festuca spp), Kentucky bluegrass and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne)
Annual warm season - corn, sudangrass, and pearl millet
Perennial warm season - big bluestem, indiangrass, bermudagrass and switchgrass.[4]
Biomes dominated by grasses are called grasslands. If only large contiguous areas of grasslands are counted, these biomes cover 31% of the
planet's land.[5] Grasslands go by various names depending on location, including pampas, plains, steppes, or prairie.
In addition to their use as forage worldwide by many grazing mammals, such as cattle and other livestock, deer, and elephants, grasses are used as food plants by many species of butterflies and moths; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on grasses.
The evolution of large grazing animals in the Cenozoic has contributed to the spread of grasses. Without large grazers, a clearcut of fire-destroyed area would soon be colonized by grasses and, if there is enough rain, tree seedlings. The tree seedlings would eventually produce shade, which kills most grasses. Large animals, however, trample the seedlings, killing the trees. Grasses persist because their lack of woody stems helps them to resist the damage of trampling.[6]
Until recently, grasses were thought to have evolved around 55 million years ago, based on fossil records. However, recent findings of 65-million-year-old phytoliths resembling grass phytoliths (including ancestors of rice and bamboo) in Cretaceous dinosaur coprolites,[1][7] may place the diversification of grasses to an earlier date. Indeed, revised dating of the origins of the rice tribe Oryzeae have been led to the suggestion that the date might be pushed back as early as 107 Ma to 129 Ma.[8]
The relationships among the subfamilies Bambusoideae
, Ehrhartoideae and
Pooideae in the BEP clade have been resolved: Bambusoideae and Pooideae are more closely related than Ehrhartoideae.[9] This separation occurred within a relatively short time span (~4 million years).
The grass family is one of the most widely distributed and abundant groups of plants on Earth. They are found on every continent, and are essentially only absent from central Greenland and much of Antarctica.[2]
The most recent classification of the grass family[citation needed] recognizes 12 subfamilies:
Anomochlooideae, a small lineage of broad-leaved grasses that includes two genera (Anomochloa, Streptochaeta)
Pharoideae, a small lineage of grasses that includes three genera, including Pharus and Leptaspis
Puelioideae, a small lineage that includes the African genus Puelia
Pooideae, including wheat,
barley, oats, brome-grass (Bromus), reed-grasses (Calamagrostis) and many lawn and pasture grasses
Bambusoideae, including bamboo
Ehrhartoideae, including rice, wild rice
Arundinoideae, including giant reed, common reed
Centothecoideae, a small subfamily of 11 genera that is sometimes included in Panicoideae
Chloridoideae, including the lovegrasses (Eragrostis, about 350 species, including teff), dropseeds (Sporobolus, some 160 species), finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.), and the muhly grasses (Muhlenbergia, about 175 species)
Panicoideae, including panic grass, maize, sorghum, sugarcane, most millets, fonio, and bluestem grasses
Micrairoideae
Danthonioideae, including pampas grass
Depending on the classification followed, the family includes approximately 668 genera.[2]
The Poaceae was named by John Hendley Barnhart in 1895,[10] based on the tribe Poeae (described in 1814 by Robert Brown), and the type genus Poa (described in 1753 by Linnaeus). The term is derived from the Ancient Greek term for "grass".
Grasses are, in human terms, perhaps the most economically important plant family. Grasses'
economic importance stems from several areas, including food production, industry, and lawns.
Food production
Agricultural grasses grown for their edible seeds are called cereals. Three cereals ? rice, wheat, and maize (corn) ? provide more than half of all calories eaten by humans.[11] Of all crops, 70% are grasses.[12] Cereals constitute the major source of carbohydrates for humans and perhaps the major source of protein, and include rice in southern and eastern Asia, maize in Central and South America, and wheat and barley in Europe, northern Asia and the Americas.
Sugarcane is the major source of sugar production. Many other grasses are grown for forage and fodder for animal feed, particularly for sheep and cattle, thereby indirectly providing more
human calories.
Industry
Grasses are used for construction. Scaffolding made from bamboo is able to withstand typhoon-force winds that would break steel scaffolding.[5] Larger bamboos and Arundo donax have stout culms that can be used in a manner similar to timber, and grass roots stabilize the sod of sod houses. Arundo is used to make reeds for woodwind instruments, and bamboo is used for innumerable implements.
Grass fiber can be used for making paper, and for biofuel production.
Phragmites australis (common reed) is important in water treatment, wetland habitat preservation and land reclamation in Afro-Eurasia.
Lawn and ornamental grasses
Grasses are the primary plant used in lawns, which themselves derive from grazed grasslands in Europe. They also provide an important means of erosion control (e.g., along
roadsides), especially on sloping land.
Although supplanted by artificial turf in some games, grasses are still an important covering of playing surfaces in many sports, including football, tennis, golf, cricket, and softball/baseball.
Ornamental grasses, such as perennial bunch grasses, are used in many styles of garden design for their foliage, inflorescences, seed heads, and slope stabilization. They are often used in natural landscaping, xeriscaping, contemporary or modern landscaping, wildlife gardening, and native plant gardening.
Grasses have long
had significance in human society. They have been cultivated as a food source for domesticated animals for up to 10,000 years, and have been used to make paper since the second century AD.[citation needed] Also, the primary ingredient of beer is usually barley or wheat, both of which have been used for this purpose for over 4,000 years.[citation needed]
Some common aphorisms involve grass. For example:
"The grass is always greener on the other side" suggests an alternate state of affairs will always seem preferable to one's own.
"Don't let the grass grow under your feet" tells someone to get moving.
"A snake in the grass" means dangers that are hidden.
"When elephants fight, it is the grass which
suffers" tells of bystanders caught in the crossfire.
A folk myth about grass is that it refuses to grow where any violent death has occurred.[13]
^ ab George Constable (ed), ed. (1985). Grasslands and Tundra. Planet Earth. Time Life Books. p. 20. ISBN 0-8094-4520-4.
^ David Attenborough (1984). The Living Planet. British Broadcasting Corporation. p. 137.
^ Prasad, V.; Stroemberg, C.A.E.; Alimohammadian, H.; Sahni, A. (2005). "Dinosaur Coprolites and the Early Evolution of Grasses and
Grazers". Science(Washington)310 (5751): 1177?1180. doi:10.1126/science.1118806. PMID 16293759.
^ Prasad V, Str?mberg CA, Leach? AD, Samant B, Patnaik R, Tang L, Mohabey DM, Ge S, Sahni A. (2011). Late Cretaceous origin of the rice tribe provides evidence for early diversification in Poaceae. Nat Commun. 2:480. doi:10.1038/ncomms1482PMID 21934664
^ Wu ZQ, Ge S (2011) The phylogeny of the BEP clade in grasses revisited: Evidence from the whole-genome sequences of chloroplasts. Mol Phylogenet Evol
^ Barnhart, J.H. (1895) Poaceae. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club22: 7.
^ Peter H. Raven & George B. Johnson (1995). Carol J. Mills (ed). ed. Understanding Biology (3rd ed.). WM C. Brown. p. 536. ISBN 0-697-22213-6.
^ George Constable (ed), ed. (1985). Grasslands and Tundra. Planet Earth. Time Life Books. p. 19. ISBN 0-8094-4520-4.
^ Olmert, Michael (1996). Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser Adventures in History, p. 208. Simon & Schuster, New York. ISBN 0-684-80164-7.
Acidosasa is a genus of bamboo (tribe Bambuseae of the family Poaceae). It comprises 6 genera, mostly found in Southern China, with 1 species also in Indochina. Its name is formed from Latin acidum ("sour") and Sasa (another bamboo genus), referring to its edible shoots. Young shoots of the plants are preserved by the local population. [more]
Actinocladum verticillatum is a species of bamboo (tribe Bambuseae of the family Poaceae) and the sole of its genus, Actinocladum. The species is distributed in western South America and Brazil. [more]
Airopsis is a genus of grass in the Poaceae family. [more]
Alexfloydia
Alexfloydia is a monotypic genus of perennial stoloniferous grasses in the family Poaceae, subfamily Panicoideae. This genus is found only in Coastal Eastern Australia. There is one known species, Alexfloydia repens. This genera was named in honour of the species discoverer Alexander Floyd. [more]
Ampelocalamus is a genus of bamboo (tribe Bambuseae of the family Poaceae). It comprises small clumping tropical bamboos found mostly in Southern China. Some experts have placed these species in the genus Sinarundinaria, now replaced by Chimonocalamus. [more]
Anemanthele is a monotypic genus of grass indigenous to New Zealand. Its only species is Anemanthele lessoniana, often called gossamer grass or New Zealand wind grass. This is a naturally rare grass in the wild but it is widely cultivated for use as an attractive ornamental garden plant. It is marginal in zone 8, going dormant and deciduous in cold winters, but usually an evergreen to semi-evergreen. Good green arching foliage to 3 feet in USDA 8, with highlights of orange, copper, and gold, especially in drier soils. Excellent backlit. [more]
The antitragus is a feature of mammalian ear anatomy. In humans, it is a small tubercle that points anteriorly, but it may be much larger in some other species, most notably bats. It is separated from the tragus by the intertragic notch. [more]
Apoclada is a genus of bamboo (tribe Bambuseae of the family Poaceae), comprising one species found in the forests of southeastern Brazil. The genus was for many years thought to contain four species (Apoclada cannavieira, A. arenicola, A. diversa & A. simplex) Upon further examination and fieldwork at the collection locality, the single piece of material at the US National Herbarium from which A. diversa had been described, was found to be merely a deformed stem of A. simplex . Later, with revised concepts of morphological interpretation in the bamboos and strong molecular evidence it became clear that the two species formerly known as A. arenicola, and A. cannavieira which are endemic to the cerrado of central Brazil are actually unrelated to A. simplex and are correctly placed in their own genus Filgueirasia. [more]
Aristaria is a genus of moths of the Noctuidae family. It contains only one species, Aristaria theroalis, which is found in the United States and Costa Rica. [more]
Ataxia (from Greek a- [used as a negative prefix] + -t???? [order], meaning "lack of order"), is a neurological sign and symptom that consists of gross lack of coordination of muscle movements. Ataxia is a non-specific clinical manifestation implying dysfunction of the parts of the nervous system that coordinate movement, such as the cerebellum. Several possible causes exist for these patterns of neurological dysfunction. The term "dystaxia" is a rarely-used synonym. [more]
Austrostipa is a genus of grass, with about 70 species. The genus includes Australasian species formerly included in the genus Stipa, and likely originated in Australia approximately 20 million years ago. [more]
Charalambos "Bambos" Xanthos is a Greek Cypriot hotel and restaurant owner based in London, England. Following on from being a backgammon player, he became a semi-professional poker player in 1993. [more]
Baptorhachis
Baptorhachis is a genus of grass in the Poaceae family. [more]
Borinda is a of clumping bamboos erected in 1994 by Stapleton and previously included in the genera Fargesia and Yushania. They have been recognized to present different flowers and shorter rhizomes than Yushanias. [more]
Brachystachyum densiflorum, short-spiked bamboo, short-tassled bamboo, short spikelet bamboo is a of bamboos, of the monotypic genus Brachystachyum. The genus names was formed from Greek and means precisely "short-spiked". [more]
Perennial orannual.Culmserect, decumbent or rambling. Leafbladeslinear, sometimes aromatic; ligulemembranous, marginciliolate.Inflorescence a terminal open panicle with elongate central axis; branches capillary, subdivided, each branchlet tipped by a short raceme; racemes with 1-5(-8) spikelet pairs, often reduced to triads of 1 sessile and 2 pedicelledspikelets, basalhomogamous spikelet pairs absent; rachis internodes and pedicels slender, with a mediantranslucentstripe between thickened margins. Sessile spikelet dorsallycompressed; callus very short, obtuse, shortly bearded; lowerglumecartilaginous, broadly convex to slightly concave, flanksrounded, keeled toward apex, apex acute to obtuse; upper glume boat-shaped, dorsally keeled; lower floret reduced to a smallemptyhyalinelemma; upper lemma stipitiform, entire, awned from apex; awngeniculate, glabrous or puberulous. Pedicelled spikelet male or barren, similar to the sessile or smaller, herbaceous.[1][more]
Cephalostachyum is a genus of small to medium-sized bamboo (tribe Bambuseae of the family Poaceae). It comprises about 8 genera, found from the northeastern Himalaya to Thailand and Mindoro. Its habitats are mountain to lowland forests. [more]
Perennial. Culmstufted, erect, unbranched. Leafsheathslonger than internodes; leaf bladeslinearor broadly linear, with transverseveinlets; ligulemembranous.Paniclelax, open. Spikelets with 1 floret, weakly dorsally flattened at anthesis, becoming terete at maturity, floret borne upon a long slender stipederived from floret callus, disarticulating at base of stipe; glumes usually absent, sometimes 2 minute vestiges at stipe base; lemmamembranous, strongly 5-7-veined, apexacute or awned; palea slightly shorter than lemma, (2-) 3(-5) -veined. Stamen 1. Caryopsisfusiform, embryosmall, hilum linear, slightly shorter than caryopsis.[2][more]
The leafbirds (Chloropseidae) are a family of small passerine bird species found in India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. They are one of only three bird families that are entirely endemic to the Indomalayan ecozone. They were formerly grouped with the ioras and fairy-bluebirds in the family Irenidae. As presently defined, the leafbird family is monotypic, with all species placed in the genus Chloropsis. [more]
Cryptochloris is a genus of golden moles, containing the two species De Winton's Golden Mole (Cryptochloris wintoni) and Van Zyl's Golden Mole (Cryptochloris zyli). [more]
(dactyl, dactylopodite) : Seventh and terminalsegment of appendage (thoracopod). Follows propodus and may serve as distalelement in subchela or as movable finger in chela.
Bambusa is a large (about 37 species) of clumping bamboos. These species are usually giant ones, with numerous branches at a node and one or two much larger than the rest. They are found in tropical and subtropical areas of Asia, especially in the monsoon and wet Tropics. [more]
Perennials, rhizomatous.Leafbladeslinearorinrolled; ligule a line of hairs.Inflorescence a narrow spikelike panicle composed of numerous, short, 1-sided racemes of sessile, closely imbricate, biseriatespikelets on a long central axis. Spikelets falling entire, strongly laterally compressed, florets several to many; glumes shorter than lemmas, unequal, membranous, 1-veined, lightly keeled, acute; lemmas papery to leathery, 3-veined with lateralveinsevanescent upward, glabrous, keeled, acute; palea equal to or slightly shorter than lemma.Caryopsisovoid, trigonous.[5][more]
Dryopoa dives (Giant Mountain Grass) is a of grass (family Poaceae) and the only member of the genus Dryopoa. The name Dryopoa (tree-grass) is derived from the Greek language, with dryos meaning tree and poa meaning grass. This species in endemic to Australia. [more]
Annual. Leafbladeslinear, flat; ligulemembranous.Inflorescence composed of dense globularspikeletclusters, spaced orconfluent along an elongate central axis, outer spikelets of each cluster with an enlarged lowerglume and
the lower or alllemmasempty, forming a chaffyinvolucre of linear-acuminate scales. Spikelets ovate, strongly
laterally compressed, florets several, usually disarticulatingaboveglumes and between florets; glumes slightly shorter than lemmas, subequal, membranous, narrow, 1-veined, acuminate to a short awn-point; lemmas 3-veined, keeled, membranous, shortly ciliate on keel and margins, keel acuminately extended into an awn-point; paleawinged on keels. Lodicules 1-2. Stamens 1-3. Caryopsis with embryo 1/2 its length and freepericarp.[6][more]
Perennial orannual.Leafbladeslinear; ligule short, membranous.Inflorescenceterminal, composed of 1 or 2(-6) digitateracemes; racemes with largeimbricatepersistentsessilespikelets covering smaller pedicelleddeciduous spikelets; rachis internodes tough, short, or almost absent and then inflorescence
capitate and sessile spikelets forming an involucre, thelower sometimes lacking a pedicelled spikelet. Sessile spikelet male or barren, dorsallycompressed, florets usually 2; lower glumelanceolate to oblong, leathery or papery, broadly convex, 7-9-veined, apextruncate or denticulate or retuse; upper glume longer and narrower than lower glume, membranous, 3-veined, apex truncate; upper lemma awnless or rarely mucronate. Pedicelled spikelet fertile, subterete, floret 1(-2) ; calluspungent, obliquely attached to pedicel; lower glume apex truncate; lower floret
usually suppressed; upper lemma entire, stipitiform, awned; awngeniculate, pubescent.Lodicules absent. Stamens 2.[7][more]
Glaziophyton mirabile is a of bamboo (tribe Bambuseae of the family Poaceae). Its genus, Glaziophyton, is monotypic. The plant is found in Brazil. [more]
Holttumochloa is a of bamboo. It has 3 species, all found in the hill forests of Peninsular Malaysia. It is sometimes included in the genus Bambusa. [more]
Perennial, aquatic, stoloniferous, numerous feathery adventitiousroots arising from nodes. Culms floating, spongy, much branched. Leafsheathsinflated, bladderlike, with transverseveinlets; leaf blades ovate-lanceolate; ligule short, membranous.Inflorescence few-spiculate
panicle, base enclosed by uppermost leaf sheath.Spikelets with 1 floret, laterally compressed, floret borne upon a long slender stipederived from floret callus, disarticulating at base of stipe, disarticulation pointmarked by a brownline; glumes absent; lemmalanceolate, papery, keeled, strongly 5-veined, outermost veins close to margins, apexacuminate, extended into a slender awn; palea as long as
lemma body and enclosed within it, papery, 3-veined. Stamens 6. Caryopsisterete, embryosmall, hilumlinear, almost as long as caryopsis.x = 12.[8][more]
Plants perennial, with creeping, underground rhizomes. Culms densely tufted, rarely laxly so. Leafblade flat, rolled. Spike dense, rarely lax, usually with terminalspikelet.Spikelets 1(or 2) per node, sessile, with (5-) 7 or 8 florets; rachilladisarticulatingaboveglumes. Glumes roundedabaxially or keeled only at apex, rarely keeled throughout length.Lemma rounded abaxially, rarely keeled, usually 5-veined, densely pilose or hirsute, awnless or shortly awned.Palea apex retuse, obtuse, or 2-lobed. Caryopsisoblong, apex usually hairy.x = 7.[9][more]
Perennials, often rhizomatous.Leafsheaths with freemargins overlapping almost to thebase.Panicle open or loosely contracted, composed of few spikelets. Spikelets large, wedge-shaped to oblong, flat, florets few to several; glumes unequal, membranous or scarious, shorter than florets, lowerglume 1-3-veined, upper glume 3-5-veined; floretcallussmall, rounded; lemmas elliptic-oblong, usually papery, rounded on back, 7-9-veined, glabrous or puberulous, apexobtuse to truncate and erose, awnless or infrequently mucronate; palea shorter and narrower than lemma, scabrid to ciliate along keels, apex 2-toothed. Anthers 3, usually nearly as long as palea.[10][more]
Perennials with spindle-shaped root tubers. Culms unbranched. Leafbladesallcauline, narrowly lanceolate, strongly many-veined with obvious crossveinlets, pseudopetiolate. Inflorescence of looseor dense unilateralracemes spaced on a central axis.Spikelets falling entire, floret 1, rachillaextension bearing a bunch of up to 9 smaller sterilelemmas, cross veinlets evident on glumes and lemmas; glumes unequal, 5-7-veined, apexobtuse; fertilelemma 7-veined, all lemmas with a retrorsely scaberulousawn, those of the sterile lemmas developing into a fan of recurvedhooks at maturity. Stamens 2 or 3.[11][more]
Perennial, rarely annual.Culmsrobust, tufted, often branched. Leafbladeslinear, flat; ligule short, membranous.Inflorescence of racemes, these usually axillary and aggregated into a spathate compoundpanicle, rarely terminal. Racemes cylindricalor flattened, fragile, horizontally articulated; rachis internodesclavate to pyriform, basetruncate with
central peg, spikeletspaired, one sessile, the other pedicelled or occasionally in triplets of 2 sessile and 1 pedicelled. Sessile spikelet closely appressed or sunk in hollow in rachis, usually longer than adjacentinternode; lowerglumepapery to leathery, ± flat, smooth or sculptured, marginally 2-keeled, keelswinged at least at apex; lower floret barren, with or without a smallpalea; upper floret with entire awnless lemma. Pedicelled spikelet varying from well developed to rudimentary or absent; pediceloblong, clavate or leaflike, free or partially or fully adnate to
rachis internode.x = 9.[12][more]
Myriocladus (botany) is a of bamboo (tribe Bambuseae of the family Poaceae). It comprises about 20 species, found in the sandstone tablelands of Venezuela and Surinam. [more]
Nastus is a of slender, erect, scrambling or climbing bamboo. It has 7 species, mainly found in the tropical mountain forests of the Southern Hemisphere from Madagascar and Réunion to the Solomon Islands. [more]
Neohouzeaua is a of medium-sized tropical bamboo (tribe Bambuseae of the family Poaceae). These species have culms growing in large tufts, often somewhat scandent. They are found in Southeast Asia. [more]
Racemobambos is a genus of bamboo (tribe Bambuseae of the family Poaceae) and the sole genus of its subtribe, the Racemobambodinae. The genus comprises about 16 species, confined to the montane forests of Malesia (included the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands). [more]
Annual orperennial.Culmsrobust.Leafbladeslinear, flat; ligulemembranous.Inflorescence of many single racemesaggregated into a spathate compoundpanicle; racemes cylindrical, fragile, transversely or slightly obliquely articulated, spikelets borne alternately on oppositesides of rachis; rachis internodes stout, semi-cylindrical, base with central peg, apex hollow. Sessilespikelet sunk into hollow in rachis; lowerglumeoblong, leathery, broadly convex, smooth, areolate or latticelike; marginally 2-keeled, with or without narrow wings toward apex; lower floret male with a palea; upper floret hyaline with entire awnless lemma.Pedicelled spikelet absent; pedicel linear, adnate to adjacentinternode, sometimes barely distinguishable from it.[13][more]
Perennials, with long scaly rhizomes. Leafbladeslinear to involute, with
setiform slightly pungentapex; ligulemembranous.Inflorescence a sparse panicle of few to several ascendingracemose branches along a central axis.Spikelets shortly pedicelled, laterally compressed, florets (1 or) 2 to several, rachilladisarticulatingaboveglumes and between florets; glumes thin, lower 1-veined, upper 3-veined, acute to obtuse; lemmas lanceolate-oblong, 3-veined, pilose, lightly keeled, entire, acute or mucronate; palea equal to or slightly shorter than lemma, ± ciliolate along keels, ± hairy between keels. Caryopsiscylindrical.[14][more]
Otatea is a of clumping bamboos found from Central Mexico to Central America. The name derives from the nahuatl otatl, meaning "bamboo". The genus comprises 3 species, of which the best-known is of the Mexican weeping bamboo. [more]
Ottochloa
Perennials. Culmstuftedor rambling and stoloniferous.Leafbladeslanceolate; ligulemembranous, truncate, ciliolate, or sometimes obscure.Inflorescence an open panicle,
primary branches spaced along the central axis, spikelets borne on short secondary branches, singly or in appressed secondary racemelets. Spikelets dorsallycompressed, 2-flowered; glumes similar, subequal, herbaceous, 1/2-2/3 spikeletlength, 3-5(-7) -veined; lowerfloret herbaceous, sterile or staminate, its lemma as long as the spikelet, 7-9-veined; upper lemma as long as the spikelet, coriaceous to cartilaginous, flattened on the back, smooth or rugulose, margins narrow, hyaline, incurved upward. x = 9.[15][more]
Perennial. Culms often robust.Leafbladeslinearor rarely terete; ligulemembranous.Inflorescenceterminal, racemes usually subdigitate, rarely spread along an elongate axis or solitary. Racemes ± flattened, bearing pairedspikelets, horizontally articulated, often rather tardily disarticulating; rachis internodesinflated to clavate, glabrous, basetruncate, sometimes with a central peg.Sessilespikelet flat, convex or concave across back; lowerglumelanceolate to ovate, membranous to leathery, smooth, marginally 2-keeled or rounded; upper glume boat-shaped; lower floret male or barren, with or without palea; upper floret bisexual, with entire awnless lemma.Pedicelled spikelet resembling sessile but usually smaller and slightly laterally compressed; pedicelfree, resembling adjacent rachis internode.[16][more]
Phyllorhachis is a genus of grass in the Poaceae family. [more]
Pilgerochloa
Pilgerochloa is a genus of grass in the Poaceae family consisiting of two Middle Eastern species: Pilgerochloa blanchei (Boiss.) Eig and Pilgerochloa eigiana H.Scholz & Raus. [more]
Pinga
In Inuit mythology, Pinga ("the one who is up on high") was a goddess of the hunt, fertility and medicine. She was also the psychopomp, bringing souls of the newly-dead to Adlivun, the underworld. [more]
Piptophyllum
Piptophyllum is a genus of grass in the Poaceae family. [more]
Perennials, densely tufted.Culms slender, branching, droopingortrailing, several- to many-noded. Leafbladeslinear or linear-lanceolate, lower blades deciduous; ligule a membranousciliaterim.Inflorescence a single raceme borne on a flexuouspeduncle, racemes many, terminating theculm branches; raceme fragile, sessile and pedicelledspikelets of a pair similar, both fertile; rachis internodes and pedicels shorter than spikelets, linear with expanded apex, ciliate. Sessile spikeletoblong, laterally compressed; callusobtuse, bearded with long silkyhairs; glumessubequal, membranous or thinly cartilaginous; lower glume strongly convex, 3-5-veined, apex truncate, 2-3-lobed, ciliate; upper glume slightly longer
than lower glume, strongly keeled, apex 2-toothed, a long, fine, flexuous awn from sinus; lower floret male with palea or reduced to a hyalinelemma or absent; upper lemma oblong, hyaline, 2-lobed for 1/3-1/2 its length, awned; awn long, very slender, geniculate near base; upper palea subequal to lemma.Stamens 1-2. Pedicelled spikelet often smaller, lacking a lower floret, upper floret bisexual or female.[17][more]
Pogoneura
Pogonochloa
Pogonochloa is a genus of grass in the Poaceae family. [more]
The American paddlefish, Polyodon spathula, also called the Mississippi paddlefish or spoonbill, is a paddlefish living in slow-flowing waters of the Mississippi River drainage system. It appears to have been extirpated from Lake Erie and its tributaries. They are closely related to the sturgeons. This large Chondrostean freshwater fish may grow to 220 cm (7 feet) and weigh up to 100 kg (220 pounds). The paddlefish takes its common and scientific names from its distinctive snout, which is greatly elongated and flattened into a paddle shape. The American paddlefish is believed to use sensitive electroreceptors on its paddle to detect prey, as well as to navigate while migrating to spawning sites. The American paddlefish feeds primarily on zooplankton but also feeds on crustaceans and bivalves. Polyodon spathula is one of two living species of Paddlefish; the other is the possibly extinct Chinese Paddlefish, Psephurus
gladius.[more]
Polytoca
Perennial. Leafblades broadly linear; ligulemembranous.Inflorescencesterminal and axillary, racemes subdigitate or axillary racemes sometimes solitary, spathate; racemes bearing pairs of unisexual awnless spikelets, female and male spikelets separated into different zones, axis fragile, especially in female zone; lateral racemes of digitatecluster entirely staminate, terminal raceme and solitary axillary racemes mixed, usually sterilespikelet pairs at base, then a zone with female sessile and sterile pedicelled spikelets, distally both spikelets of a pair staminate, uppermost spikelet pairs sterile. Rachis internode and pedicel fused along one margin, flat, ciliate; callustruncate with central knob. Female zone: spikelet pair dissimilar; sessile spikelet dorsallycompressed; lowerglume leathery, enveloping whole spikelet, glume body oblong, flanksrounded, abruptly contracted into keeledwingedapicalbeak; lower floret sterile, reduced to a lemma; upper floret pistillate, palea present, stigma single, elongate; pedicelled spikelet much longer than sessile, sterile, comprising only a herbaceous, many-veined lower glume. Male zone:spikelet pair similar, both staminate; lower glume lanceolate, papery, winged abovemiddle; both florets male with paleas.[18][more]
Pommereulla
Pommereulla is a genus of grass in the Poaceae family. [more]
Pseudanthistiria is a genus of grass in the Poaceae family. [more]
Pseudarrhenatherum
Pseudechinolaena
Annuals. Culmstrailing.Leafbladeslanceolate; ligulemembranous.Inflorescence composed of several slender, loosely spiculateracemes spaced along a central axis, spikeletspaired but thesessilespikelet often reduced. Spikelets laterally compressed, florets 2; glumes equaling the spikelet or slightly shorter, lowerglumeacute to awned, upper glume gibbous, armed at maturity with coarse, tubercle-based hooklike bristles, apex acute or rarely awned; lower lemma equaling the spikelet, papery to
subcoriaceous but membranous on the margins and with a medianhyalinepatch at the base; upper lemma laterally compressed, obliquely ellipsoid, cartilaginous to coriaceous, margins flat or inrolled.[19][more]
Aquatic or semi-aquatic perennials. Culmsdecumbent to stoloniferous, many-noded, rooting at lowernodes or floating. Leafsheathscompressed; leaf bladeslinear to lanceolate; ligulemembranous or ciliate.Inflorescence open or contracted, composed of racemes on allsides of a common axis; racemes solitary or grouped, rachis slender, bearing 1 to several alternate shortly pedicelledspikelets, terminating in a bristle. Spikelets lanceolate, terete or slightly dorsally compressed, florets 2; lower glume very small, veinless; upper glume equaling thespikelet, firmly herbaceous, scabrous to setose, long-acuminate or briefly awned; lower lemma resembling upper glume but usually slightly shorter, enclosing a shorter hyalinepalea; upper floret 1/2 as long, shortly stipitate, membranous, smooth, shiny. Caryopsis eventually much larger than upper floret and filling spikelet when mature.x = 7, 9.[20][more]
The thin-walled bamboo (Pseudostachyum polymorphum) is a species of bamboo and the sole species of the genus Pseudostachyum. The plant is found in Myanmar and India. [more]
Psilolemma is a genus of grass in the Poaceae family. [more]
Psilurus
Pterium
Pteria was the capital of the Assyrians in northern Cappadocia. They were said by Herodotus to have been taken and ruined by Croesus in 547 BC. It also was the place of an undecided battle between Cyrus the Great and Croesus. [more]
Chusquea is a genus of bamboo with about 150 species. Most of them are mountain clumping bamboos native from southern Mexico to southern Chile and Argentina. They are sometimes referred to as South American mountain bamboos. Unlike most other bamboos, the stems of these species are solid, not hollow. Some animals are, to various extents, associated with stands of Chusquea, for example the Inca Wren and the Plushcap. [more]
Reynaudia
Reynaudia is a genus of grass in the Poaceae family. [more]
Rhipidocladum is a genus of New World woody bamboo (subfamily Bambusoideae of the family Poaceae). It comprises 18 species, found in Central and South America. The genus is characterized by 1) erect, non-pseudopetiolate culm leaves, 2) numerous branchlets arising in an apsidate (fan-like) array, and 3) fruits being true caryopses. The name is derived from the Greek rhipid meaning "fanlike" and clad meaning "branch" . [more]
Rhizocephalus
Rhizocephalus is a genus of grass in the Poaceae family. [more]
Bamboo is a group of woody perennial evergreen (except for certain temperate species) plants in the true grass family Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae, tribe Bambuseae. Some of its members are giant bamboo, forming by far the largest members of the grass family. Bamboo is the fastest growing woody plant in the world. Their growth rate (up to 1.2 meters/day (1.5-2.0 inches/hr)) is due to a unique rhizome-dependent system, but is highly dependent on local soil and climate conditions. [more]
Scleropogon is a monotypic genus of which includes the sole species Scleropogon brevifolius, or burrograss. This grass is found in two areas of the world, in North America from the southwestern United States to central Mexico and in South America in Chile and Argentina. This is a perennial mat-forming grass with sharp, tufted leaves and firm awns. This grass may be dioecious, with staminate and pistillate plants growing in separate colonies. [more]
Perennial orannual.Culmstufted, simple or sparingly branched. Leafblades narrowly linear; ligule a line of hairs.Inflorescence a single terminalraceme, spikeletspaired, dissimilar; rachis internodes and pedicels subinflated, stoutly linear to subclavate, densely white-ciliate along margins. Sessilespikeletbisexual, narrow, compressed between internode and pedicel; callusrounded, inserted into shallowly hollowed internode apex; lowerglume leathery, backconcave or longitudinally grooved, strongly veined on either side of groove
but midvein absent, 2-keeled, keelslateral or becoming dorsal toward base, barely winged, apex elongate, scarious, 2-toothed; upper glume boat-shaped, finely awned; lower floretstaminate, well developed with palea; upper lemma 2-lobed, awned from sinus; awngeniculate, columnglabrous or ciliolate.Pedicelled spikelet large, conspicuous, usually staminate, lanceolate, strongly dorsally compressed, distinctly veined, midvein present, awnless. x = 10 and 20.[21][more]
Perennials, often rhizomatous.Culmserect, many-noded, simpleor branched. Leafbladeslinear to lanceolate, flat, sometimes narrowed to a pseudopetiole; ligulemembranous, often hairy on margin or back.Inflorescenceterminal, an open or contractedpanicle with elongate central axis, primary branches subverticillate, typically capillary, smooth, bearing 1 or more racemes; racemes short, rachis fragile or tough, sessile and pedicelledspikelet of a pair similar, both pedicelled when rachis tough, both fertile, rarely spikelets solitary; rachis internodes and pedicels slender or thickened upward, often with cupularapex. Spikelets usually lanceolate, scarcely compressed; callus subglabrous to shortly bearded; glumes equal, firmly papery, lowerglumerounded on back, puberulous to villous, closely many-veined, veinsprominent, raised into ridges, apexacute to shortly awned; upper glume usually resembling lower glume, sometimes keeled; lower floret often staminate, lemma lanceolate to ovate, palea usually present; upper lemma deeply 2-lobed, awned from sinus; awngeniculate.x = 10.[23][more]
Perennials. Leafbladeslinear.Inflorescence a contractedor spikelike panicle.Spikelets with 1 floret, bisexual; rachillaextension present, short; glumeslanceolate, subequal, longer than floret, membranous to herbaceous, 1-5-veined, apexacuminate; callus short, obtuse, shortly bearded; lemma narrowly ovate, herbaceous or thinly leathery, rounded on back, 5-veined, body pubescent or pilose, apex deeply 2-lobed, lobes acuminate or excurrent into a short awn, a circlet of long hairs across base of lobes, awned from sinus; awn geniculate with twisted column, scabrid throughout; palea narrowly lanceolate, equaling or slightly shorter than lemma, hairy between veins; lodicules 2 or 3, narrowly lanceolate.Stamens 1 or 3, anthersglabrous at apex.Stigmas 2.[24][more]
Thalysia (Ta??s?a) was an ancient Greek festival of first fruits held in the honor of Demeter, the earth goddess. [more]
Thamnocalamus
Thamnocalamus is a genus of clumping bamboo. These species are found from the mountains of East Asia and Africa. They are similar to the genus Fargesia, which is sometimes put in synonymy with Thamnocalamus. [more]
Perennial. Leafblades usually rolled; ligule short, erose, ciliolate.Inflorescence an open orcontractedpanicle; pedicels short. Spikelets with 1 floret, bisexual, slightly dorsallycompressed; rachillaextension absent; glumessubequal or slightly unequal, lanceolate or lanceolate-oblong, herbaceous, scabrid or smooth, 3-5-veined, apexacuminate; callus short, obtuse, bearded; lemma slightly shorter than glumes, lanceolate, covering only flanks of palea, membranous, 3-5-veined, villous, apex 2-lobed, lobes acuminate to setiform, awned from between lobes; awnpersistent, scabrid, weakly 1-geniculate, column loosely twisted, sometimes only slightly so; palea hyaline, back exposed, pubescent between veins.Lodicules 2 or 3, lanceolate.Stamens 3, anthersglabrous at apex.Stigmas 2.[26][more]
Trilobachne
Trilobachne is a genus of grass in the Poaceae family. [more]
The valiha is a tube zither from Madagascar made from a species of local bamboo. It is played by plucking the strings, which may be made of metal or (originally) the bamboo skin which is pried up in long strands and propped up by small bridges made of pieces of dried gourd. The valiha is considered the national instrument of Madagascar. [more]
Yushania is a genus with 6 species of spreading thornless bamboos. They are found in the Himalaya at moderate to high altitudes, up to 3000 m but usually lower, and in Taiwan and Africa. They are evergreen and reach 2 to 10 m tall. [more]
Zygochloa is a monotypic genus of grass endemic to Australia. Its only species is Zygochloa paradoxa. It occurs in extremely arid areas such as the Simpson Desert. [more]
More info about the Genus Zygochloa may be found here.
^ ab George Constable (ed), ed. (1985). Grasslands and Tundra. Planet Earth. Time Life Books. p. 20. ISBN 0-8094-4520-4.
^ Dav
id Attenborough (1984). The Living Planet. British Broadcasting Corporation. p. 137.
^ Prasad, V.; Stroemberg, C.A.E.; Alimohammadian, H.; Sahni, A. (2005). "Dinosaur Coprolites and the Early Evolution of Grasses and Grazers". Science(Washington)310 (5751): 1177?1180. doi:10.1126/science.1118806. PMID 16293759.
^ Prasad V, Str?mberg CA, Leach? AD, Samant B, Patnaik R, Tang L, Mohabey DM, Ge S, Sahni A. (2011). Late Cretaceous origin of the rice tribe provides evidence for early diversification in Poaceae. Nat Commun. 2:480. doi:10.1038/ncomms1482PMID 21934664
^ Wu ZQ, Ge S (2011) The phylogeny of the BEP clade in grasses revisited: Evidence from the whole-genome sequences of chloroplasts. Mol Phylogenet Evol
^ Barnhart, J.H. (1895) Poaceae. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club22: 7.
^ Peter H. Raven & George B. Johnson (1995). Carol J. Mills (ed). ed. Understanding Biology (3rd ed.). WM C. Brown. p. 536. ISBN 0-697-22213-6.
^ George Constable (ed), ed. (1985). Grasslands and Tundra. Planet Earth. Time Life Books. p. 19. ISBN 0-8094-4520-4.
^ Olmert, Michael (1996). Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser Adventures in
History, p. 208. Simon & Schuster, New York. ISBN 0-684-80164-7.
Shou-liang Chen & Sylvia M. Phillips "Capillipedium". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 572, 605, 607. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
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Sheng-lian Lu & Sylvia M. Phillips "Cyathopus". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 316, 363. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Shou-liang Chen & Sylvia M. Phillips "Desmostachya". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 458, 480. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Shou-liang Chen & Sylvia M. Phillips "Elytrophorus". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 6, 450. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Shou-liang Chen & Sylvia M. Phillips "Germainia". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 572, 599. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
"Hygroryza". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 182, 186. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
"Kengyilia". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 387, 431. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Shou-liang Chen & Sylvia M. Phillips "Littledalea". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 370. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
"Lophatherum". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 445. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Bi-xing Sun & Sylvia M. Phillips "Mnesithea". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 573, 640, 642, 647. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Bi-xing Sun & Sylvia M. Phillips "Ophiuros". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 573, 647. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Shou-liang Chen & Sylvia M. Phillips "Orinus". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 1, 457, 464. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Shou-liang Chen & Sylvia M. Phillips "Ottochloa". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 500, 512. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Bi-xing Sun & Sylvia M. Phillips "Phacelurus". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 573, 639. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Shou-liang Chen & Sylvia M. Phillips "Pogonatherum". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 571, 591. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Shou-liang Chen & Sylvia M. Phillips "Polytoca". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 571, 650. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Shou-liang Chen & Sylvia M. Phillips "Pseudechinolaena". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 500. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Shou-liang Chen & Sylvia M. Phillips "Pseudoraphis". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 499, 547. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Bi-xing Sun & Sylvia M. Phillips "Sehima". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 572, 609. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
"Sphaerocaryum". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 6, 554, 560. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
Shou-liang Chen & Sylvia M. Phillips "Spodiopogon". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 571, 573. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
"Stephanachne". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 188, 189, 190, 191. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
"Trikeraia". in Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 188, 190, 191. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
^ David Attenborough (1984). The Living Planet. British Broadcasting Corporation, 113–4. ISBN 0-563-20207-6.
^ Dolores R. Piperno and Hans-Dieter Sues (18 November 2005). Dinosaurs Dined on Grass. Science Magazine. Retrieved on 2007-03-23.
^ Peter H. Raven & George B. Johnson (1995). in Carol J. Mills (ed): Understanding Biology, 3rd, WM C. Brown, 536. ISBN 0-697-22213-6.
^ (1985) in George Constable (ed): Grasslands and Tundra, Planet Earth. Time Life Books, 19. ISBN 0-8094-4520-4.
^ ab (1985) in George Constable (ed): Grasslands and Tundra, Planet Earth. Time Life Books, 20. ISBN 0-8094-4520-4.
[