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Cardueae

(Tribe)

Overview

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The Cynareae are a of flowering plants in the daisy family Asteraceae. Most of them are commonly known as thistles3]; four of the best known genera are Carduus,[4] Cynara (containing the widely eaten artichoke), Cirsium[4], and Onopordum[4].

They are annual, biennial or perennial herbs. Many species are thorny on leaves, stems or involucre, and some have laticifers or resin conduits. Almost 80 genera with 2500 species are assigned to this tribe,[5] native of tempered regions of Europe and Asia (specially of the Mediterranean region and Minor Asia), some of Australia and tropical Africa; only three[6] genera have native species of America.[7]

Taxonomy

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Cardueae is a synonym for Cynareae,[8] but the name Cynareae was published almost a decade earlier and so has precedence.

Some authors have divided the plants traditionally held to be in this tribe into three tribes: Cynareae in the narrow sense, Carlineae, and Echinopeae. However, other authors have retained the traditional broader classification.[8]

Photos

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Taxonomy

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The Tribe Cardueae is a member of the Subfamily Cichorioideae. Here is the complete "parentage" of Cardueae:

The Tribe Cardueae is further organized into finer groupings including:

Genera

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Arctium

Biennials or (monocarpic) perennials, 50-300 cm; herbage not spiny. Stems erect, openly branched, branches ascending. Leaves basal and cauline; long-petiolate; gradually smaller distally; blade margins entire or dentate (pinnately lobed or dissected), faces abaxially resin-gland-dotted, adaxially often tomentose. Heads discoid, in leafy-bracted racemiform to paniculiform or corymbiform arrays. ( Peduncles 0 or 1-9 cm.) Involucres spheric to ovoid. Phyllaries many in 9-17 series, outer and mid narrowly linear. bases appressed, margins entire. apices stiffly radiating, hooked-spiny tipped, inner linear, ascending or erect, straight tipped. Receptacles ± flat, epaleate, bearing subulate scales. Florets (5-) 20-40+; corollas pink to ± purple, glabrous or glandular-puberulent, tubes elongate. throats campanulate. lobes narrowly triangular, ± equal; anther bases tailed, apical appendages ovate, obtuse to acute; style branches: fused portions distally hairy-ringed, distinct portions oblong, acute or obtuse . Cypselae obovoid. ± compressed, rough or ribbed, glabrous, attachment scars basal; pappi falling, of many bristles in 2-4 series . x = 18.[1] [more]

Carduus

Annuals or biennials [perennials], 30-200(-400) cm. spiny, ± tomentose, sometimes glabrate. Stems erect, simple to much branched, (spiny-winged) . Leaves basal and cauline; petiolate or sessile; blade margins spiny dentate, often 1-2-pinnately lobed, faces glabrous or hairy, eglandular. Heads discoid, borne singly or 2-20 in dense clusters or corymbiform arrays. (Peduncles naked or leafy-bracteate, spiny-winged or not winged.) Involucres cylindric to spheric. Phyllaries many in 7-10+ series, linear to broadly ovate, bases appressed, margins entire, apices ascending to spreading or reflexed, acute, spine-tipped. Receptacles flat, epaleate, bearing setiform scales ("flattened bristles"). Florets several-many; corollas white to pink or purple, ± bilateral, tubes long, slender, throats short, campanulate, abruptly expanded from tubes, lobes linear; anther bases sharply short-tailed, apical appendages oblong; style branches: fused portions with slightly, minutely puberulent, swollen basal nodes, distally papillate or glabrous, distinct portions very short. Cypselae ovoid, slightly compressed, faces smooth. glabrous, attachment scars slightly lateral; pappi persistent or falling in rings. of many minutely barbed, basally connate bristles or setiform, minutely barbed scales ("minutely flattened bristles"). x = 8, 9, 10, 11, 13.[2] [more]

Carthamus

Annuals or perennials, 30-180 cm. herbage glabrous to ± glandular and/or ± tomentose. Stems usually erect, branched distally or throughout, (leafy). Leaves basal and cauline or all cauline; basal and proximal cauline winged-petiolate, distal cauline sessile, sometimes clasping; blade margins dentate to pinnately lobed, ± spiny, faces glabrous or ± glandlar and/or ± tomentose. Heads discoid, borne singly or in few-headed cymiform arrays. Involucres ovoid, constricted distally. Phyllaries many in 4-5 series. linear to ovate (at least outer ± leaflike), bases appressed, apical appendages more herbaceous, prominently veiny, spiny-dentate or -lobed, spine. tipped. Receptacles convex to conic, epaleate, bearing subulate scales. Florets 15-60+. corollas yellow to red or ± purple, tubes very slender, throats gradually or abruptly expanded, ± cylindric or short-campanulate, lobes linear; anther bases short-tailed, apical appendages oblong; style branches: fused portions with slightly swollen basal nodes minutely hairy, distally minutely papillate, distinct portions very short. Cypselae oblong to obpyramidal, ± 4-angled, apices with smooth or dentate rims, faces usually ± roughened (outer) or smooth (inner), glabrous, attachment scar. lateral; pappi 0 or (usually only inner cypselae) ± persistent, of many, usually unequal, narrow scales overlapping in several series. x = 10, 12.[3] [more]

Centaurea

Annuals, biennials, or perennials, 20-300 cm, glabrous or tomentose. Stems erect, ascending, or spreading, simple or branched. Leaves basal and cauline; petiolate or sessile; proximal blade margins often ± deeply lobed, (spiny in C. benedicta ), distal ± smaller, often entire, faces glabrous or ± tomentose, sometimes also villous, strigose, or puberulent, often glandular-punctate. Heads discoid, disciform, or radiant, borne singly or in corymbiform arrays. Involucres cylindric or ovoid to hemispheric . Phyllaries many in 6-many series, unequal, proximal part appressed, body margins entire. distal parts expanded into erect to spreading, usually ± dentate or fringed, linear to ovate appendages, spine. tipped or spineless. Receptacles flat, epaleate, bristly. Florets 10-many; outer usually sterile, corollas slender and inconspicuous to much expanded, ± bilateral; inner fertile, corollas white to blue, pink, purple, or yellow, bilateral or radial, often bent at junction of tubes and throats, lobes linear-oblong, acute; anther bases tailed, apical appendages oblong; style branches: fused portions with minutely hairy nodes, distinct portions minute. Cypselae ± barrel-shaped, ± compressed, smooth or ribbed, apices entire (denticulate in C. benedicta ), glabrous or with fine, 1-celled hairs, attachment scar. lateral (with or without elaiosomes) ; pappi 0 or ± persistent, of 1-3 series of smooth or minutely barbed, stiff bristles or narrow scales . x = 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15.[4] [more]

Centradenia

[more]

Centranthus

Annual or perennial herbs or undershrubs. Leaves simple or compound. Flowers in clusters. Calyx rolled in flowers. Corolla 5-lobed, spurred. Ovary unilocular. Achene pappose.[5] [more]

Cephalanthus

Cephalanthus (Buttonbush) is a of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. Different authorities accept between six and 15 species. The name derives from ancient Greek "head flower" (cephalo meaning head and anthus meaning flower). [more]

Cephalaria

Herbs, glabrous to pilose. Leaves sometimes divided. Involucral bracts coriaceous, the receptacular ones larger. Calyx cupular, limb many-toothed. Corolla 4-fid. Involucel 4-8-angled, limb toothed.[6] [more]

Cephalocereus

Cephalocereus is a small of slow-growing, columnar-shaped, blue-green cacti. The genus is native to Mexico. For more information see Old-Man Cactus. [more]

Cephalotaxus

Morphological characters and geographical distribution are the same as those for the family.[7] [more]

Chamaepeuce

Ptilostemon ( Chamaepeuce DC.) is a genus of the botanical family Asteraceae. [more]

Cirsium

Annuals, biennials, or perennials, 5-400 cm, spiny. Stems (1-several) erect, branched or simple, sometimes narrowly spiny-winged. Leaves basal and cauline; finely bristly-dentate to coarsely dentate or 1-3 times pinnately lobed, teeth and lobes bristly-tipped, faces green and glabrous or densely gray-canescent, usually eglandular. Heads discoid, borne singly, terminal and in distal axils, or in racemiform, spiciform, subcapitate, paniculiform, or corymbiform arrays. ( Peduncles with ± reduced leaflike bracts.) Involucres cylindric to ovoid or spheric, (1-6 ×) 1-8 cm. Phyllaries many in 5-20 series, subequal or weakly to strongly, outer and middle with bases appressed and apices spreading to erect, usually spine-tipped, innermost usually with erect, flat, often twisted, entire or dentate, usually spineless apices (distal portion of phyllary midveins in many species with elongate, glutinous resin gland, usually milky in fresh material but dark brown to black when dry) . Receptacles flat to convex, epaleate, covered with tawny to white bristles or setiform scales. Florets 25-200+; corollas white to pink, red, yellow or purple, ± bilateral, tubes long, slender, distally bent, throats short, abruptly expanded. cylindric, lobes linear; (filaments distinct) anther bases sharply short-tailed, apical appendages linear-oblong; style tips elongate (as measured in descriptions including the slightly swollen nodes, long cylindric fused portions of style branches and very short distinct portions) . Cypselae ovoid, ± compressed, with apical rims, smooth, not ribbed, glabrous, basal attachment scars slightly angled; pappi persistent or falling in rings, in 3-5 series of many flattened, plumose bristles or plumose, setiform scales (longer bristles shorter than corollas except in C. foliosum and C. arvense) . x = 17.[8] [more]

Cissus

Lianas, woody or subwoody, hermaphroditic or polygamo-monoecious. Tendrils unbranched or bifurcate, sometimes racemosely branched. Leaves simple or palmately compound. Inflorescence a compound dichasium or an umbel, leaf-opposed. Flowers 4-merous. Calyx cupular, glabrous. Petals falling off separately. Stamens 4. Disk well developed, margin undulate or slightly 4-lobed. Style conspicuous; stigma undivided or 2-divided. Berry obovoid or ellipsoid, 1- or 2-seeded. Seeds obovoid-elliptic or elliptic, base rostrate, apex rounded, chalazal knot at or near base; cross-section of endosperm M-shaped.[9] [more]

Cnicus

Cnicus benedictus (Blessed Thistle or Holy Thistle), the sole species in the genus Cnicus, is a -like plant in the family Asteraceae, native to the Mediterranean region, from Portugal north to southern France and east to Iran. It is known in other parts of the world, including parts of North America, as an introduced species and often a noxious weed. [more]

Cnidoscolus

Cnidoscolus is a genus of the family Euphorbiaceae. [more]

Cobaea

[more]

Coccinia

The Scarlet gourds (Coccinia) is a genus with about 30 species. It is distributed in sub- Africa and with one species in South and Southeast Asia that is also introduced into the New World. It is best known for the cultivated crop C. grandis, the Ivy gourd or Tindora (also Tindori, Tindoori). [more]

Coccoloba

Trees or shrubs, evergreen; roots woody. Stems erect or spreading, glabrous or pubescent distally. Leaves persistent, cauline, alternate, petiolate; ocrea often deciduous, membranous to coriaceous; blade lanceolate to round or transversely elliptic, margins entire. Inflorescences terminal, racemelike, pedunculate. Pedicels present. Flowers functionally unisexual, some plants having only staminate flowers, others with only pistillate flowers, base stipelike; perianth white or greenish white, campanulate, glabrous; tepals 5, connate proximally, sepaloid, monomorphic. Staminate flowers 1-7 per ocreate fascicle, perianth nonaccrescent; stamens 8; filaments connate at base, adnate to perianth, glabrous; anthers white or bluish white, elliptic to round; pistil rudimentary. Pistillate flowers 1 per ocreate fascicle, perianth accrescent and fleshy in fruit; stamens rudimentary; styles 3, erect, distinct; stigmas capitate. Achenes usually included in fleshy perianth tube, brown to black, unwinged, bluntly 3-gonous, glabrous. Seeds: embryo straight. x = 11.[10] [more]

Coccothrinax

Plants small to moderate. Stems solitary or occasionally caespitose, erect, slender, at first covered with leaf sheaths. Leaves: sheath fibers soft, netlike, eventually sloughing off to reveal smooth to fissured stem; petiole not split at base, unarmed; abaxial hastula a low ridge or absent; adaxial hastula a crescent-shaped ridge to semi-cylindric excrescence; blade palmate; plication induplicatee (V-shaped) ; segments lanceolate, basally connate; cross veins obscure [conspicuous]. Inflores cences interfoliar, downcurved [long and arching], not extending beyond leaves, with 2 orders of branching; prophyll short, peduncular bracts several, sterile, tubular, distally expanded, silky-pubescent; primary branches subtended by smaller peduncular bracts. Flowers bisexual, borne singly along rachillae, short-pedicellate; perianth 1-seriate, shallowly cupulate, lobes 5--7, apiculate; stamens 7--12; filaments acute; anthers dorsifixed, twisted when dry; pistils 1, 1-carpellate, glabrous; style slender; stigma funnelform. Fruits globose; stigmatic scar apical; exocarp purplish, smooth, slightly warty when dry; mesocarp fleshy; endocarp membranaceous. Seeds globose, irregularly brain-shaped; endosperm homogeneous, bony; embryo apical [superior]; eophyll undivided, lanceolate.[11] [more]

Cochlospermum

Cochlospermum is a genus of in the Cochlospermaceae family; many classifications place this genus in the family Bixaceae. [more]

Colignonia

[more]

Cornus

Shrubs, trees, or herblike shrubs, precocious, coetaneous, or serotinous. Young shoots pubescent, rarely glabrous; trichomes curly or straight, raised or appressed. Stem sympodial, rarely monopodial. Winter buds terminal or axillary, mixed or separate, covered or exposed. Petiole slightly furrowed adaxially; leaf blade narrowly elliptic, elliptic, oblong, or ovate, glabrous to densely pubescent, lateral veins actinodromous, often raised abaxially. Inflorescence formed in previous or current year; bracts covering inflorescence or not. Sepals 4, fused; teeth absent, minute, or variously triangular. Petals 4, free, spreading, oblong to orbicular, valvate. Filaments filiform or awn-shaped, longer than style, longer or shorter than petals; anthers whitish or yellow, rarely blue, red, or purplish, ellipsoid to narrowly ellipsoid or oblong, 2-loculed. Ovary obovoid, crowned by a disk. Fruit globose, ovoid, oblong, or ellipsoid, crowned by persistent calyx, disk, and style; stones globose, ovoid, ellipsoid, oblong, sometimes asymmetric, surface smooth or ribbed, apex rarely pitted.[12] [more]

Cornutia

[more]

Cynara

Annuals or perennials, 50-250 cm. herbage ± arachnoid-tomentose. Stems ± erect, simple or branched, (leafy), stout. Leaves basal and cauline; petiolate (basal and proximal cauline) or sessile (distal cauline) ; blade margins 1-3-pinnately lobed or divided, sometimes essentially compound, spineless or with slender to very stout marginal spines, cauline progressively smaller and less divided distally, distalmost bractlike, abaxial faces pilose to densely gray-tomentose, adaxial glabrous or thinly tomentose, sometimes glandular. Heads discoid, borne singly or in few-headed, terminal, cymiform arrays. Involucres hemispheric or ovoid, sometimes constricted distally, 5-15 cm diam . Phyllaries many in 5-8+ series, unequal; outer lanceolate to broadly ovate, leathery, margins entire, with appressed bases and spreading apical appendages, acute to broadly obtuse or truncate, spine-tipped or spineless; inner scarious. Receptacles concave to flat or convex, epaleate, densely long-bristly. Florets many; corollas white, blue, or purple, tubes very slender, throats abruptly expanded, cylindric. lobes linear; anther bases long-sagittate, fringed, apical appendages oblong; style branches: fused portions long, cylindric, minutely papillate, distinct portions minute. Cypselae ± cylindric to obpyramidal, ± 4-angled, finely ribbed, sometimes ± flattened, glabrous, apices truncate, smooth, attachment scars basal; pappi falling in rings of many (white or brownish), stiff bristles in 3-7 series, connate at bases, plumose proximally, often merely barbed distally. x = 34.[13] [more]

Galearis

Herbs, perennial, scapose, rather succulent. Roots not tuberously thickened, fascicled, fleshy. Stems bractless proximal to inflorescence, conspicuously angled. Leaves [1-]2, basal, spreading, conduplicate, gradually narrowed to sheathing petioles; blade oblance-ovate to obovate, elliptic, or suborbiculate, apex rounded-obtuse. Inflorescences terminal, solitary, racemose spikes; bracts large, foliaceous. Flowers 2-15, resupinate, showy; lip protruding downward from hood formed by sepals and enclosing petals, base produced into spur; pollinaria 2; pollinia 2; viscidia within single 2-lobed bursicle; stigma concave, hidden behind bursicle. Fruits capsules, erect.[14] [more]

Hemerocallis

Herbs, perennial, scapose, clump-forming, rhizomatous, from fibrous or fleshy contractile roots often enlarged at ends; rhizomes spreading. Leaves many, basal, sessile, 2-ranked, bases sheathing; blade long-linear, keeled, apex acuminate. Inflorescences 2, in terminal helicoid cyme, or solitary. Flowers mostly diurnal and ephemeral, slightly irregular, showy; tepals 6, connate basally into short, funnelform to campanulate tube, distinct parts imbricate, spreading, inner broader than outer; stamens 6, adnate to throat of perianth tube; filaments curved upward, distinct, unequal; anthers dorsifixed, 2-locular, linear-oblong, dehiscence introrse; ovary superior, green, 3-locular, conic, septal nectaries present; style curved upwards; stigma indistinctly 3-lobed or capitate. Fruits capsular, leathery, dehiscence loculicidal. Seeds rarely produced (sterile) or many. x = 11.[15] [more]

Humulus

Herbs, taprooted annuals or rhizomatous perennials, rightward-twining. Stems usually branched, armed with rigid 2-branched, stalked hairs that facilitate climbing. Leaves simple; petioles often twining, with 2-branched hairs. Leaf blade mostly cordate, palmately lobed, sometimes unlobed; surfaces abaxially resin-dotted and×or gland-dotted. Inflorescences: staminate inflorescences axillary and terminal, cymose panicles, erect to pendent, (10-) 20-100+-flowered, flowers small; pistillate axillary, spikes or racemes, flowers solitary or paired, short-pedicellate, subtended by bracts and bracteoles. Staminate and pistillate flowers usually on different plants. Achenes lenticular or terete, ensheathed by brownish or sometimes mottled persistent perianth; embryo coiled. x = 10.[16] [more]

Nematanthus

Nematanthus is a genus of of the family Gesneriaceae. Compared to other gesneriads, Nematanthus has leaves that are small, succulent, and hard-surfaced. The plant has a trailing, branching, and spreading habit; it is generally an epiphyte in nature and a hanging-basket plant in cultivation. [more]

Onopordum

Biennials, 50-400+ cm, coarse, prickly. Stems usually erect, ± branched, spiny-winged. Leaves basal and cauline; winged-petiolate (basal) or sessile (cauline) ; blade bases narrowing. margins pinnately lobed or divided and dentate, teeth and lobes tipped with stout spines. Heads discoid, borne singly or in corymbiform arrays; (peduncles 0 or spiny winged). Involucres hemispheric to ovoid or spheric. Phyllaries many in 8-10+ series. linear to ovate, entire, tapered to stiff spines, middle and outer often spreading or reflexed. Receptacles flat to convex, epaleate, not bristly, alveolate with apically fringed pits. Florets many; corollas white or purple, actinomorphic or weakly zygmorphic, tubes slender, throats cylindric or narrowly goblet-shaped. lobes linear; anther bases acute-tailed, apical appendages subulate; style branches: fused portions with minutely hairy nodes, long, cylindric, minutely papillate, distinct portions minute. Cypselae ± cylindric, 4-5-angled, usually ± transversely roughened, glabrous, attachment scars basal; pappi falling in ring, of many barbed or plumose bristles, basally connate. x = 17.[17] [more]

Orchis

Orchis is a genus in the orchid family (). This genus gets its name from the Greek ????? orchis, meaning "testicle", from the appearance of the paired subterranean tuberoids. [more]

Parsonsia

Lianas woody, latex white. Leaves opposite. Cymes corymbose or paniculate, dichotomous, terminal or axillary, pedunculate. Flowers small. Calyx with basal glands inside or 5-scaled. Corolla salverform, tube short, hairy inside distally, faucal scales absent, lobes overlapping to right. Stamens inserted at middle of corolla tube or at throat; filaments long, strongly intertwisted or geniculate; anthers narrowly sagittate, exserted, glutinous, connivent into a subcylindric cone, adherent to middle of pistil head, cells with an empty tail; disc 5-lobed or 5-scaled. Ovaries 2; ovules numerous in each carpel. Style filiform; pistil head thickened, apex entire or 2-cleft. Follicles 2, terete, parallel or divergent. Seeds linear or oblong, apex crowned with coma; endosperm scanty; cotyledons very narrowly oblong, flat, radicle superior.[18] [more]

Ptilostemon

Ptilostemon ( Chamaepeuce DC.) is a genus of the botanical family Asteraceae. [more]

Serratula

Serratula is a genus of at least 17 species in the native to the old world. Serratula as traditionally defined contains at least two groups: one of which is basal within the subtribe Centaureinae and one of which is derived; the former group can be moved to the genus Klasea. [more]

At least 163 species and subspecies belong to the Genus Serratula.

More info about the Genus Serratula may be found here.

References

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  1. ^ Panero, JL; VA Funk (2002-12-30). "Toward a phylogenetic subfamilial classification for the Compositae (Asteraceae)". Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington (Biological Society of Washington) 115 (4): 909–922. http://www.mnh.si.edu/biodiversity/bdg/Panero&Funk2002.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-08-12. 
  2. ^ Susanna, Alfonso. (2006). "THE CARDUEAE (COMPOSITAE) REVISITED: INSIGHTS FROM ITS, trnL-trnF, AND matK NUCLEAR AND CHLOROPLAST DNA ANALYSIS1, 2". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 93: 150. doi:10.3417/0026-6493(2006)93[150:TCCRIF]2.0.CO;2. 
  3. ^ "Cardueae (“thistles”)". BioImages: The Virtual Field-Guide (UK). http://www.bioimages.org.uk/HTML/T1086.HTM. Retrieved on 2007-11-30. 
  4. ^ a b c "thistle". Merriam-Webster's online dictionary. http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=thistle. Retrieved on 2007-11-30. 
  5. ^ Dittrich, 1977, The Biology and Chemistry of the Compositae 2:1017-1038
  6. ^ "Cirsium". Flora of North America. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=107139. 
  7. ^ Bremer 1994 Asteraceae: Cladistic and Classification [Tribe Carduae: 112-156]
  8. ^ a b "tribe Cynareae". Flora of North America. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=20706. Retrieved on 2008-01-04. 

Bibliography

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Footnotes

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  1. David J. Keil "Arctium". in Flora of North America Vol. 19, 20 and 21 Page 28, 58, 83, 168, 169. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  2. David J. Keil "Carduus". in Flora of North America Vol. 19, 20 and 21 Page 57, 66, 83, 91, 96, 97, 122. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  3. David J. Keil "Carthamus". in Flora of North America Vol. 19, 20 and 21 Page 52, 67, 83, 178. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  4. David J. Keil, Jörg Ochsmann "Centaurea". in Flora of North America Vol. 19, 20 and 21 Page 52, 57, 58, 67, 83, 84, 96, 171, 172, 176, 177, EFloras.org.
  5. "Centranthus". in Flora of Pakistan Vol Page. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  6. "Cephalaria". in Flora of Pakistan Page 11. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  7. Liguo Fu, Nan Li & Robert R. Mill "Cephalotaxus". in Flora of China Vol. 4 Page 85. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  8. David J. Keil "Cirsium". in Flora of North America Vol. 19, 20 and 21 Page 57, 66, 82, 83, 93, 95, 96, 97, 100, 102, 1. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  9. Hui Ren & Jun Wen "Cissus". in Flora of China Vol. 12 Page 173, 184. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  10. Craig C. Freeman "Coccoloba". in Flora of North America Vol. 5. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  11. "Coccothrinax". in Flora of North America Vol. 22 Page 99, 100. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  12. "Cornus". in Flora of China Vol. 14 Page 206. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  13. David J. Keil "Cynara". in Flora of North America Vol. 19, 20 and 21 Page 57, 58, 66, 67, 83, 89. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  14. Charles J. Sheviak & Paul M. Catling "Galearis". in Flora of North America Vol. 26 Page 496, 550. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  15. Gerald B. Straley & Frederick H. Utech "Hemerocallis". in Flora of North America Vol. 26 Page 51, 53, 57, 219. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  16. "Humulus". in Flora of North America Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  17. David J. Keil "Onopordum". in Flora of North America Vol. 19, 20 and 21 Page 57, 66, 83, 87, 96. Oxford University Press. Online at EFloras.org.
  18. "Parsonsia". in Flora of China Vol. 16 Page 172. Published by Science Press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Online at EFloras.org.

Sources

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Last Revised: September 22, 2009
2009/09/22 15:09:33