Overview
Squamata, or the scaled reptiles, is the largest recent of reptiles, including lizards and snakes. Members of the order are distinguished by their skins, which bear horny scales or shields. They also possess movable quadrate bones, making it possible to move the upper jaw relative to the braincase. This is particularly visible in snakes, which are able to open their mouths very wide to accommodate comparatively large prey. They are the most variably-sized order of reptiles, ranging from the 16 mm (0.63 in.) Jaragua Sphaero (Sphaerodactylus ariasae) to the 8 m (26 ft.) Green Anaconda (Eunectes murinus).
Classification
Classically, the order is divided into three suborders:
- Lacertilia, the lizards;
- Serpentes, the snakes;
- Amphisbaenia, the worm lizards.
- Suborder Iguania – (the agamids, chameleons, iguanids. and other New World lizards)
- Suborder Scleroglossa
- Infraorder Anguimorpha – (the monitors, Gila monster, alligator lizards, galliwasps, slow-worms and others)
- Infraorder Amphisbaenia – worm lizards
- Infraorder Gekkota – (the geckos)
- Infraorder Scincomorpha – (skinks, whiptail lizards and common European lizards)
- Infraorder Serpentes – (the snakes)
- Suborder Serpentes (snakes)
- Suborder Iguania (agamids, chameleons, iguanids, etc.)
- Infraorder Anguimorpha, consisting of:
- Family Varanidae (monitor lizards, including the Komodo dragon)
- Family Anguidae (alligator lizards, glass lizards, etc.)
- Family Helodermatidae (Gila monster and Mexican beaded lizard)
- Infraorder Anguimorpha, consisting of:
Of these, the lizards form a paraphyletic group. In newer classifications the name Sauria is used for reptiles and birds in general, and the Squamata are divided differently:
The relationships between these suborders is not yet certain, though recent research[1] suggests that several families may form a hypothetical venom clade which encompasses a majority (nearly 60%) of Squamate species. Named Toxicofera, it combines the following groups from traditional classification[1]:
List of Families
Evolution
Squamates are a monophyletic group that is a sister group to the tuatara. The sq uamates and tuatara together are a sister group to crocodiles and birds, the extanct archosaurs. Squamate fossils first appear in the early Jurassic, but a mitochondrial phylogeny suggests that they evolved in the late Permian. The evolutionary relationships within the squamates are not yet completely worked out, with the relationship of snakes to other groups being most problematic. From morphological data, Iguanid lizards have been thought to have diverged from other squamates very early, but recent molecular phylogenies, both from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, do not support this early divergence[7]. Because snakes have a faster molecular clock than other squamates,[7] and there are few early snake and snake ancestor fossils,[8] it is difficult to resolve the relationship between snakes and other squamate groups.
Reproduction
The male members of the group Squamata have a hemipenis. Hemipenes are usually held inverted, within the body, and are everted for reproduction via erectile tissue like that in the human penis.[9] Only one is used at a time, and some evidence indicates males alternate use between copulations. The hemipenis itself has a variety of shapes, depending on species. Often the hemipenis bears spines or hooks, to anchor the male within the female. Some species even have forked hemipenes (each hemipenis has two tips). Due to being everted and inverted, hemipenes do not have a completely enclosed channel for the conduction of sperm, but rather a seminal groove which seals as the erectile tissue expands. This is also the only reptile g roup in which can be found both viviparous and ovoviviparous species, as well as the usual oviparous reptiles. Some species, like the Komodo dragon, can actually reproduce asexually and undergo parthenogenesis. [10]
Venom
Venom is modified saliva, delivered through fangs.[11] The fangs of 'advanced' venomous snakes like viperids and elapids are hollow to inject venom more effectively, while the fangs of rear-fanged snakes such as the Boomslang merely have a groove on the posterior edge to channel venom into the wound. Snake venoms are often prey specific, its role in self-defense is secondary.[1 1] Venom, like all salivary secretions, is a pre-digestant which initiates the breakdown of food into soluble compounds allowing for proper digestion and even "non-venomous" snake bites (like any animal bite) will cause tissue damage.[12]
Recent research suggests that the evolutionary origin of venom may exist deep in the squamate phylogeny, with 60% of squamates placed in this hypothetical group called Toxicofera. Venom has been known in the families Helodermatidae, Elapidae, Viperidae, and some members of the Colubridae. However, all snakes, some agamid lizards and most monitor lizards are now believed by some to have proteins very closely related to venom.[13][14]
Humans and Squamates
Bites and Fatalities
In the US alone, more than 8,000 venomous snake bites are reported each year.[15] It is estimated that 125,000 people a year die from venomous snake bites.[16] In addition, larg e pet constrictors, like boas and pythons, have been known to kill their owners through strangulation on rare occasions. [17]
Lizard bites, unlike venomous snake bites, are not fatal. The Komodo dragon has been known to kill people due to its size. [18] The two known venomous species of lizard, the Gila monster and Mexican beaded lizard have never caused a human death by envenomation.
Conservation
Even though they survived the worst changes in Earth's history, today many squamate species are endangered due to habitat loss, hunting and poaching, the pet trade, alien species being introduced to their habitat (which puts native creatures at risk through unfair competition & predation), and many other unnecessary reasons. Because of this, some are in fact extinct with Africa having the most extinct species of squamates. However, breeding programs and wildlife parks are trying to save many endangered reptiles from extinction. Many zoos & breeders educate people about the importance of snakes and lizards.
Photos
Taxonomy
The Order Squamata is further organized into finer groupings including:
- Suborder (2): Lacertilia · Serpentes
- Infraorder (5): Amphisbaenia · Anguimorpha · Gekkota · Iguania · Scincomorpha
- Family (78): Acrochordidae · Agamidae · Aigialosauridae · Amphisbaenia · Amphisbaenidae · Anguidae · Aniliidae · Anniellidae · Anomalepidae · Anomalepididae · Anomalopheidae · Anomalophiidae · Anomochilidae · Archaeophiidae · Ardeosauridae · Atractaspididae · Bavarisauridae · Bipedidae · Boidae · Bolyeridae · Bolyeriidae · Chamaeleonidae · Colubridae · Cordylidae · Corytophanidae · Crotaphytidae · Cylindrophiidae · Dibamidae · Dinilysiidae · Dolichosauridae · Elapidae · Eublepharidae · Gekkonidae · Gerrhosauridae · Gymnophthalmidae · Helodermatidae · Hoplocercidae · Hydrophiidae · Hyporhinidae · Iguanidae · Kuehneosauridae · Lacertidae · Lanthanotidae · Leiosauridae · Leptotyphlopidae · Loxocemidae · Macrocephalosauridae · Madtsoiidae · Mosasauridae · Necrosauridae · Nigeropheidae · Nigerophiidae · Oligodontosauridae · Opluridae · Pachyophiidae · Palaeopheidae · Palaeophidae · Palaeophiidae · Paramacellodidae · Parasaniwidae & middot; Phrynosomatidae · Polychrotidae · Pygopodidae · Pythonidae · Rhineuridae · Scincidae · Simoliophiidae · Teiidae · Trogonophidae · Tropidophiidae · Tropiduridae · Typhlopidae · Uropeltidae · Varanidae · Viperidae · Xantusiidae · Xenopeltidae · Xenosauridae
- Species: ZipcodeZoo has pages for 24,720 species and subspecies in the Order Squamata.
Families
Acrochordidae
The Acrochordidae are a family created for the genus Acrochordus. This is a group of primitive snakes found in Australia and Indonesia. Currently, 3 species are recognized. [more]
Agamidae
Agamids, of the family Agamidae, include more than 300 species in Africa, Asia, Australia, and a few in Southern Europe. Phylogenetically they may be sister to the Iguanidae, and have a similar appearance. Agamids usually have well-developed, strong legs. Their tails cannot be shed and regenerated like those of geckoes, though a certain amount of regeneration is observed in some[citation needed]. Many agamid species are capable of limited change of their colors[citation needed]. They inhabit warm environments, ranging from hot deserts to tropical rainforests. [more]
Aigialosauridae
Amphisbaenia
The Amphisbaenia are a suborder of usually legless closely related to lizards and snakes. As many species possess a pink body coloration and scales arranged in rings, they have a superficial resemblance to earthworms. They are very poorly understood, due to their burrowing lifestyle and general rarity. Most species are found in Africa and South America, with a few in other parts of the world. Little is known of them outside of their anatomy, and even that is difficult to study due to the mechanics of dissecting something so small. Most species are less than 6 inches (150 mm) long. [more]
Amphisbaenidae
The Amphisbaenidae are a family of , commonly known as worm lizards. They are found in North and South America, some Caribbean islands, and in sub-Saharan Africa. One primitive and somewhat aberrant genus, Blanus, is native to Europe, and may represent a distinct family. [more]
Anguidae
The Anguidae is a large and diverse family of lizards native to the northern hemisphere. The group includes the , glass lizards, and alligator lizards, among others. Their closest living relatives are the helodermatid lizards. They have hard osteoderms beneath their scales, and many of the species have reduced or absent limbs, giving them a snake-like appearance, although others are fully limbed. [more]
Aniliidae
The Aniliidae are a family created for the monotypic genus Anilius that contains the species A. scytale, found in South America. This snake possesses a vestigial pelvic girdle that is visible as a pair of cloacal spurs. It is ovoviviparous. The diet consists mainly of amphibians and other reptiles. Currently, two subspecies are recognized, including the typical form described here. [more]
Anniellidae
The family Anniellidae, known as American contains two species in a single genus Anniella: A. pulchra, the California legless lizard, with two subspecies A. p. pulchra and A. p. nigra, and the rare A. geronimensis, the Baja California legless lizard. [more]
Anomalepidae
Anomalepididae
The Anomalepididae are a of non-venomous snakes found in the Central and South America. They are similar to Typhlopidae, except that some species possess a single tooth in the lower jaw. Currently, 4 genera and 15 species are recognized. [more]
Anomalopheidae
Anomalophiidae
Anomochilidae
The Anomochilidae, or anomochilids, are a family created for the genus Anomochilus, which currently contains 2 monotypic species. [more]
Archaeophiidae
Ardeosauridae
Atractaspididae
The Atractaspididae are a of snakes found in Africa and the Middle East. Currently, 12 genera are recognized. [more]
Bavarisauridae
Bipedidae
Bipedidae, are a of amphisbaenians. They are found only in Mexico. Ajolotes are carnivorous, burrowing reptiles, but unlike other species of amphisbaenian, they possess two stubby forelimbs placed far forward on the body. The shovel-like limbs are used to scrape away soil while burrowing through the soil, in a similar manner to a mole. [more]
Boidae
The Boidae are a of non-venomous snakes found in America, Africa, Europe, Asia and some Pacific Islands. Relatively primitive snakes, adults are medium to large in size, with females usually larger than the males. The name is derived from the Latin term bos, meaning "cow", and is based on an old myth that boas pursue cows and suckle them until they are drained to death. Two subfamilies comprising eight genera and 43 species are currently recognized. [more]
Bolyeridae
Bolyeriidae
The Bolyeriidae are a of snakes native to Mauritius and a few islands around it, especially Round Island. In the past they also occurred on the island of Mauritius, but were extirpated there due to human influence and foraging pigs in particular. These snakes were formerly placed in the Boidae, but are now classed as a separate family. Currently, two monotypic genera are recognized. [more]
Chamaeleonidae
The family Chamaeleonidae are a distinctive and highly specialized of lizards. They are distinguished by their parrot-like zygodactylous feet, their separately mobile and stereoscopic eyes, their very long, highly modified, and rapidly extrudable tongues, their swaying gait, and the possession by many of a prehensile tail, crests or horns on their distinctively shaped heads, and the ability of some to change color. Uniquely adapted for climbing and visual hunting, the approximately 160 species of chameleon range from Africa, Madagascar, Spain and Portugal, across south Asia, to Sri Lanka, have been introduced to Hawaii and California, and are found in warm habitats that vary from rain forest to desert conditions. [more]
Colubridae
Cordylidae
Cordylidae is a family of mid-sized lizards that inhabit arid and semi-arid regions in and eastern Africa. T They are commonly known as the Spinytail lizards or Girdle-tailed lizards. [more]
Corytophanidae
Corytophanidae is a of lizards also called casque head lizards or helmeted lizards. They typically have well-developed head crests in the shape of a casque. This crest is a sexually dimorphic characteristic, found only on males[citation needed]. There are 9 known species of casque heads from 3 genera. [more]
Crotaphytidae
Cylindrophiidae
The Cylindrophiidae are a family containing the genus Cylindrophis found in Asia. These are burrowing snakes and all have checkered black-and-white bellies. Currently, 8 species are recognized and no subspecies. [more]
Dibamidae
Dinilysiidae
Dolichosauridae
Elapidae
Eublepharidae
Eublepharinae is a subfamily of the , or geckos. Also called eye-lash geckos, the Eublepharines have more primitive features than other geckos. In particular, their feet lack the modifications that allow most other geckos to climb sheer surfaces. Unlike other geckos, they also have movable eyelids. They are nocturnal lizards, often preying on insects and similar creatures. They lay a pair of leathery eggs, and, in at least some species, the sex of the young are determined by the temperature of incubation, as in crocodiles. [more]
Gekkonidae
Geckos are small to average sized belonging to the family Gekkonidae, found in warm climates throughout the world. Geckos are unique among lizards in their vocalizations, making chirping sounds in social interactions with other geckos. An estimated 2,000 different species of geckos exist worldwide, with many likely yet to be discovered. The name stems from the Indonesian/Javanese word Tokek, inspired by the sound these animals make. The Malay word for gecko is cicak. [more]
Gerrhosauridae
The Gerrhosauridae is a family of lizards native to Africa and Madagascar. Also known as plated lizards, they live in a range of habitats, from rocky crevices to sand dunes. Their form is variable, with some species having four fully developed limbs, and others with vestigial hind limbs only. Most species are believed to be . [more]
Gymnophthalmidae
Gymnophthalmidae is a of lizards, sometimes known as spectacled lizards or microteiids. They are called 'spectacled' because of their transparent lower eyelids, so they can still see with closed eyes. Like most lizards, but unlike geckos, these eyelids are movable. [more]
Helodermatidae
Hoplocercidae
Hydrophiidae
Sea snakes, or seasnakes, are elapid snakes that inhabit marine environments for most or all of their lives. Though they evolved from terrestrial ancestors, most are extensively adapted to a fully aquatic life and are unable to even move on land, except for the genus Laticauda, which retain ancestral characteristics which allow limited land movement. They are found in warm coastal waters from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific. All have paddle-like tails and many have laterally compressed bodies that give them an eel-like appearance. However, unlike fish, they do not have gills and must come to the surface regularly to breathe. Nevertheless, they are among the most completely aquatic of all air-breathing vertebrates. Among this group are species with some of the most potent venoms of all snakes. Some have gentle dispositions and bite only when provoked, while others are much more aggressive. Currently, 17 genera are described as sea snakes, comprising 62 species. [more]
Hyporhinidae
Iguanidae
The Iguanidae is a family of , composed of iguanas and related species. [more]
Kuehneosauridae
Lacertidae
Lacertidae is the of the wall lizards, or true lizards, which are native to Europe, Africa, and Asia. The group includes the genus Lacerta, which contains some of the most commonly seen lizard species in Europe. [more]
Lanthanotidae
The earless monitor lizard (Lanthanatus boreneensis) is a semi-aquatic, brown lizard native to northern . It is the only species in the family Lanthanotidae, a group related to the true monitor lizards, as well as to the beaded lizards. [more]
Leiosauridae
Leptotyphlopidae
The Leptotyphlopidae (commonly called Slender Blind Snakes or Thread Snakes) are a of snakes found in North and South America, Africa, and Asia. All are fossorial and adapted to burrowing, feeding on ants and termites. Currently, 2 genera are recognized comprising 87 species. [more]
Loxocemidae
The Loxocemidae are a family of snakes created for the monotypic genus Loxocemus that contains the species L. bicolor found in Mexico. No subspecies are currently recognized. [more]
Macrocephalosauridae
Madtsoiidae
Mosasauridae
Mosasaurs (from Mosa meaning the 'Meuse river' in the Netherlands, and Greek sauros meaning 'lizard') were serpentine marine reptiles. The first fossil remains were discovered in a limestone quarry at Maastricht on the Meuse in 1764. These ferocious marine predators are now considered to be the closest relatives of snakes, due to cladistic analysis of symptomatic similarities in jaw and skull anatomies. Mosasaurs were not dinosaurs but lepidosaurs, reptiles with overlapping scales. These predators evolved from semi-aquatic squamates known as the aigialosaurs, close relatives of modern-day monitor lizards, in the Early Cretaceous Period. During the last 20 million years of the Cretaceous Period (Turonian-Maastrichtian), with the extinction of the ichthyosaurs and pliosaurs, mosasaurs became the dominant marine predators. [more]
Necrosauridae
Nigeropheidae
Nigerophiidae
Oligodontosauridae
Opluridae
The Opluridae, or Madagascan Iguanas, are a family of moderately sized lizards native to . The family includes species that live amongst rocks, some that live in trees, and one that inhabits sand dunes. All of the species lay eggs, and have teeth that resemble those of the true iguanas. [more]
Pachyophiidae
Palaeopheidae
Palaeophidae
Palaeophiidae
Paramacellodidae
Parasaniwidae
Phrynosomatidae
Phrynosomatidae is a diverse family of , found from Panama to the extreme south of Canada. Many members of the group are adapted to life in hot, sandy deserts, although the spiny lizards prefer rocky deserts or even relatively moist forest edges, and the short-horned lizard lives in prairie or sagebrush environments. The group includes both egg-laying and viviparous species, with the latter being more common in species living at high elevation. [more]
Polychrotidae
Polychrotidae is a family of commonly known as Anoles . NCBI places the anole in subfamily Polychrotinae of the family Iguanidae. Four genera are common: Anolis, Norops, Phenacosaurus and Polychrus. [more]
Pygopodidae
Pygopodidae (or fogs) is a family of snakes with legs related to the . They have unusually long, slender, bodies, giving them a strong resemblance to snakes. Like both snakes and most geckos, they have no eyelids, but unlike snakes, they have external ear-holes and flat, non-forked tongues. They are native to Australia and New Guinea. [more]
Pythonidae
The Pythonidae, commonly known simply as pythons, are a of non-venomous snakes found in Africa, Asia and Australia. Among its members are some of the largest snakes in the world. Eight genera and 26 species are currently recognized. [more]
Rhineuridae
Scincidae
A Family in the Kingdom Animalia. [more]
Simoliophiidae
Teiidae
Trogonophidae
Tropidophiidae
The Tropidophiinae are a of snakes found from Mexico and the West Indies south to southeastern Brazil. These are small to medium-sized fossorial snakes, some with beautiful and striking color patterns. Currently, 4 living genera containing 22 species and one extinct genus with one species are recognized. [more]
Tropiduridae
The Tropiduridae is a family of lizards native to and the West Indies. Most are ground-dwelling animals, and the family includes some lizards adapted to relatively cold climates, including those of the Andes mountains and Tierra del Fuego. Several species give birth to live young. [more]
Typhlopidae
The Typhlopidae are a of blind snakes. They are found mostly in the tropical regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The rostral scale overhangs the mouth to form a shovel like burrowing structure. The eyes are covered with scales and teeth occur in the upper jaw. The tail ends with a horn like scale. Most of these species are oviparous. Currently, 6 genera are recognized containing 203 species. [more]
Uropeltidae
The Uropeltidae are a of primitive burrowing snakes found in southern India and Sri Lanka. The name is derived from the Greek words ura ("tail") and pelte ("shield"), indicating the presence of the large keratinous shield at the tip of the tail. Currently, 8 genera are recognized comprising 47 species. [more]
Varanidae
Varanidae is a group of lizards of the Varanoidea. The family is a group of carnivorous lizards which includes the heaviest living lizard, the Komodo dragon, and the crocodile monitor which is the longest lizard in the world. Varanidae contains the living genus Varanus and a number of extinct taxa. Their closest living relatives are the anguid and helodermatid lizards. [more]
Viperidae
The Viperidae are a family of found all over the world, except in Australia, Ireland, Madagascar and the Arctic Circle. All have relatively long hinged fangs that permit deep penetration and injection of venom. Four subfamilies are currently recognized. [more]
Xantusiidae
Night lizards ( name Xantusiidae) are a group of very small, viviparous (live-bearing) lizards, averaging from less than 4 cm to over 12 cm long. The family has only three genera, with approximately 23 living species. The genera are divided by geographic range: Xantusia in southwestern North America and Baja California, Cricosaura in Cuba, and Lepidophyma, the most populous night lizard genus, in Central America. [more]
Xenopeltidae
The Xenopeltidae are a family of snakes created to the genus Xenopeltis, which is found in Southeast Asia. Its members are known for their highly iridescent scales. Currently, two species are recognized and no subspecies. [more]
Xenosauridae
The Xenosauridae is a family of native to Central America and China. Also known as knob-scaled lizards, they have rounded, bumpy scales and osteoderms. Most species prefer moist or semi-aquatic habitats, although they are widespread within their native regions, with some even inhabiting semi-arid scrub environments. They are carnivorous or insectivorous, and give birth to live young. [more]
At least 20 species and subspecies belong to the Family Xenosauridae.
More info about the Family Xenosauridae may be found here.
References
- Bebler, John L.; King, F. Wayne (1979). The Audubon Society Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of North America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 581. ISBN 0394508246.
- Capula, Massimo; Behler (1989). Simon & Schuster's Guide t o Reptiles and Amphibians of the World. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671690981.
- Cogger, Harold; Zweifel, Ric hard (1992). Reptiles & Amphibians. Sydney, Australia: Weldon Owen. ISBN 0831727861.
- Conant, Roger; Collins, Joseph (1991). A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibi ans Eastern/Central North America. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0395583896.
- Ditmar s, Raymond L (1933). Reptiles of the World: The Crocodilians, Lizards, Snakes, Turtles and Tortoises of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. New York: Macmillian. pp. 321.
- Freiberg, Dr. Marcos; Walls, Jerry (1984). The World of Venomous Animals. New Jersey: TFH Publications. ISBN 0876665679.
- Gibbons, J. Whitfield; Gibbons, Whit (1983). Their Blood Runs Cold: Adventures With Reptiles and Amphibians. Alabama: University of Alabama Press. pp. 16 4. ISBN 978-0817301354.
- McDiarmid, RW; Campbell, JA; Touré, T (1999). Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. 1. Herpetologists' League. pp. 511. ISBN 1893777006.
- Mehrtens, John (1987). Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling. ISBN 0806964618.
- Rosenfeld, Arthur (1989). Exotic Pets. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 293. ISBN 067147654.
Footnotes
- ^ a b Fry, B. et al. (February 2006). "Early evolution of the venom system in lizards and snakes" (PDF). Nature 439: 584–588. doi:
- ^ a b c d e f g Cogger(1991), p.23
- ^ Aniliidae (TSN 209611). Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved on 12 December 2007.
- ^ Anomochilidae (TSN 563894). Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved on 13 December 2007.
- ^ Atractaspididae (TSN 563895). Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved on 13 December 2007.
- ^ Typhlopidae (TSN 174338). Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved on 13 December 2007.
- ^ a b Kumazawa, Yoshinori (2007). "Mitochondrial genomes from major lizard families suggest their phylogenetic relationships and ancient radiation s". Gene 388: 19–26. doi:
- ^ "Lizards & Snakes Alive!". American Museum of Natural History. http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/lizards/snakes/world.php. Retrieved on 2007-12-25.
- ^ "Iguana Anatomy". http://www.greenigsociety.org/anatomy.htm.
- ^ Morales, Alex. "Komodo Dragons, World's Largest Lizards, Have Virgin Births". Bloomberg Television. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601082&sid=apLYpeppu8ag&refer=canada. Retrieved on 2008-03-28.
- ^ a b Mehrtens (1987), p.243
- ^ Mehrtens (1987), p.209
- ^ "Venom Hunt Finds 'Harmless' Snakes A Potential Danger". Science Daily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/12/031216075937.htm. Retrieved on 2007-12-25.
- ^ "Lizards' poisonous [sic] secret is revealed". NewScientist. http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn8331. Retrieved on 2007-12-25.
- ^ "First Aid Snake Bites". University of Maryland Medical Center. http://www.umm.edu/non_trauma/snake.htm. Retrieved on 2007-12-30.
- ^ "Snake-bites: appraisal of the global situation". Who.com. http://www.who.int/bloodproducts/publications/en/bulletin_1998_76(5)_515-524.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-12-30.
- ^ "Pet boa constrictor chokes owner". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6191305.stm. Retrieved on 2007-12-30.
- ^ "Komodo dragon kills boy, 8, in Indonesia". msnbc. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19026658/. Retrieved on 2007-12-30.
Sources
- The text on this page is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It includes material from Wikipedia retrieved Thursday, August 13, 2009.
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