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Passeriformes

(Order)

Overview

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A passerine is a bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders: with over 5,000 identified species,[1] it has roughly twice as many species as the largest of the mammal orders, the Rodentia. It contains over 110 families, the second most of any order of vertebrates (after the Perciformes).

The names "passerines" and "Passeriformes" are derived from Passer domesticus, the scientific name of the eponymous species?the House Sparrow?and ultimately from the Latin term passer for Passer sparrows and similar small birds.

Characteristics

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The order is divided into three suborders, Tyranni (suboscines), Passeri (oscines), and the basal Acanthisitti. Oscines have the best control of their syrinx muscles among birds, producing a wide range of songs and other vocalizations (though some of them, such as the crows, do not sound musical to human beings); some such as the lyrebird are accomplished imitators. The Acanthisittids or New Zealand wrens are tiny birds restricted to New Zealand, at least in modern times; they were long placed in Passeri; their taxonomic position is uncertain, though they seem to be a distinct and very ancient group.

Most passerines are smaller than typical members of other avian orders. The heaviest and altogether largest passerines are the Thick-billed Raven and the larger races of Common Raven, each exceeding 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) and 70 cm (28 in). The Superb Lyrebird and some birds-of-paradise, due to very long tails or tail coverts, are longer overall.[verification needed] The smallest passerine is the Short-tailed Pygm y-Tyrant, at 6.5 cm (2.6 in) and 4.2 g (0.15 oz).

Pterylosis or the feather tracts in a typical passerine

The foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward and one toe directed backwards, called anisodactyl arrangement. This arrangement enables the passerine birds to perch upon vertical surfaces, such as trees and cliffs. The toes have no webbing or joining, but in some cotingas the second and third toes are united at their basal third. The hind toe joins the leg at the same level as the front toes. In other orders of birds the toe arrangement is different. The leg muscle of passerine birds contains a special adaption for perching. It will automatically tighten and become stiff if the bird start s to lose hold of the branch on which it is perching. This enables passerines to sleep while perching without falling off. This is especially useful for passerine birds that develop nocturnal lifestyles.[2]

Most passerine birds develop twelve tail feathers, though the Superb Lyrebird has sixteen.[citation needed] Certain species of passerines have stiff tail feathers, which help the birds balance themselves when perching upon vertical surfaces.

The chicks of passerines are altricial: blind, featherless, and helpless when hatched from their eggs. This requires that the chicks receive a lot of parental care. Most passerines lay colored eggs, in contrast with non-passerines, most of whose eggs are white except in some ground-nesting groups such as Charadriiformes and nightjars, where camouflage is necessary, and some parasitic cuckoos, which match the passerine h ost's egg.

Clutches vary considerably in size: some larger passerines of Australia such as lyrebirds and scrub-robins lay only a single egg, most smaller passerines in warmer climates lay between two and five, whilst in the higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere hole-nesting species like tits can lay up to a dozen and other species around five or six.

Origin and evolution

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The evolutionary history of the passerine families and the relationships among them remained rather mysterious until the late 20th century. In many cases, passerine families were grouped together on the basis of morphological similarities which, it is now believed, are the result of convergent evolution, not a close genetic relationship. For example, the "wrens" of the northern hemisphere, those of Australia, and those of New Zealand look very similar and behave in similar ways, and yet belong to three far-flung branches of the passerine family tree; t hey are as unrelated as it is possible to be while remaining Passeriformes.[3]

Much research remains to be done, but advances in molecular biology and improved paleobiogeographical data are gradually revealing a clearer picture of passerine origins and evolution that reconciles molecular affinities, the constraints of morphology and the specifics of the fossil record.[4] It is now thought that the first passerines evolved in Gondwana at some time in the Paleogene, maybe around the Late Paleocene some 60?55 mya.[5] The initial split was between the Tyranni, the songbirds, the Eurylaimides and the New Zealand "wrens", which must have diverged during a short period of time (some million years at most). The Passeriformes apparently evolved out of a fairly close-knit clade of "near passerine s" which contains such birds as the Piciformes and Coraciiformes.[6]

A little later, a great radiation of forms took place out of Australia-New Guinea: the Passeri or songbirds. A major branch of the Passeri, "Parvorder Passerida", emerged either as the sister group to the basal lineages and corvoids ("Parvorder Corvida"), or more likely as a subgroup of it, and expanded deep into Eurasia and Africa, where there was a further explosive radiation of new lineages. This eventually led to three major passeridan lineages comprising about 4,000 species, which in addition to the corvoidan clade and numerous minor lineages make up songbird diversity today. There has been extensive biogeographical mixing, with northern forms returning to the south, southern forms moving north, and so on.

Fossil record

Earliest passerines

Perching bird osteology, especially of the limb bones, is rather diagnostic.[7] However, the early fossil record is poor because the first Passeriformes were apparently on the small side of the present size range, and their delicate bones did not preserve well. QM specimens F20688 (carpometacarpus) and F24685 (tibiotarsus) from Murgon, Queensland are fossil bone fragments clearly recognizable as passeriform; they represent two species of approximately 10 and 20 cm in overall length and prove that some 55 mya, barely into the Early Eocene, early perching birds were recognizably distinct.[8]

Male Superb Lyrebird (Menura novaehollandiae). This very primitive songbird shows strong sexual dimorphism, with a peculiarly apomorphic display plumage in males.

A quite similar group, the Zygodactylidae (named for their zygodactylous approach to perching) independently arose at much the same time ? and possibly from closely related ancestors ? in the landmasses bordering the North Atlantic, which at that time was only some two-thirds of its present width.

Until the discovery of the Australian fossils Palaeospiza bella from the Priabonian Florissant Fossil Beds (Late Eocene, around 35 mya) was the oldest known passeriform. However, it is now considered a non-passeriform near passerine.

From the Bathans Formation at the Manuherikia River in Otago, New Zealand, MNZ S42815 (a distal right tarsometatarsus of a Tui-sized bird) and several bones of at least one species of Saddleback-sized bird have recently been described. These date from the Early to Middle Miocene (Awamoan to Lillburnian, 19-16 mya).[9]< /p>

Modern knowledge about the living passerines' interrelationships (see the list of families below) suggests that the last common ancestor of all living Passeriformes was a small forest bird, probably with a stubby tail[10] and an overall drab coloration, but possibly with marked sexual dimorphism. The latter trait seems to have been lost and re-evolved multiple times in songbird evolution alone, judging from its distribution among the extant lineages. Sexual dichromatism is very rare among the basal lineages of Passerida, and probably their plesiomorphic condition. But among the youngest passerid clade, the Passeroidea, extremely colorful males and drab females are common, if not the rule. On the other hand, among the basalmost Passeri there are a considerable number of strongly dimorphic lineages too, such as the very ancient Menuridae as well as many Meliphagoidea and Corvoide a. Sexual dimorphism is also not uncommon in the Acanthisittidae and prominent in some suboscines such as the Pipridae and Cotingidae.

Early European passerines

In Europe, perching birds are not too uncommon in the fossil record from the Oligocene onwards, but most are too fragmentary for a more definite placement:

Wieslochia was possibly not a member of any extant suborder. That not only the Passeri expanded much beyond their region of origin is proven by an undetermined broadbill (Eurylaimidae) from the Early Miocene (roughly 20 mya) of Wintershof, Germany, and the indeterminate Late Oligocene suboscine from France listed above. Even very basal Passeriformes might have been common in Europe until the Middle Miocene, some 12 mya.[17] Extant Passeri superfamilies were quite distinct by that time and are known since about 12?13 mya when modern genera were present in the corvoidean and basal songbirds. The modern diversity of Passerida genera is known mostly from the Late Miocene onwards and into the Pliocene (about 10?2 mya). Pleistocene and early Holocene lagerst?tten (<1.8 mya) yield numerous extant species, and many yield almost nothing but extant species or their chronospecies and paleosubspecies.

American fossils

In the Americas, the fossil record is more scant before the Pleistocene, from which several still-existing suboscine families are documented. Apart from the indeterminable MACN-SC-1411 (Pinturas Early/Middle Miocene of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina),[18] an extinct lineage of perching birds has been described from the Late Miocene of California, USA: the Palaeoscinidae with the single genus Paleoscinis. "Palaeostruthus" eurius (Pliocene of Florida) probably belongs to an extant family, most likely passeroidean.

Systematics and taxonomy

[ Back to top ]

Initially,[citation needed] the Corvida and Passerida were classified as "parvorders" in the suborder Passeri; in accord with the usual taxonomic practice, they would probably be ranked as infraorders. As originally envisioned in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, they contained, respectively, the large superfamilies Corvoidea and Meliphagoidea as well as minor lineages, and the superfamilies Sylvioidea, Muscicapoidea and Passeroidea.

The peculiar Bearded Reedling, Panurus biarmicus, may be the most enigmatic passerine. No truly close relatives have been identified.

This arrangement has been found to be overly simplified by more recent research. Since the mid 2000s, literally dozens of studies are being published which try rather successfully to resolve the phylogeny of the passeriform radiation. For example, the Corvida in the traditional sense were a rather arbitrary assemblage of early and/or minor lineages of passeriform birds of Old World origin, generally from the region of Australia, New Zealand, and Wallacea. The Passeri on the other hand can be made monophyletic by moving some families about, but the "clean" three-superfamily-arrangement has turned out to be far more complex and it is uncertain whether future authors will stick to it.

Major "wastebin" families such as the Old World warblers and Old World babblers have turned out to be paraphyletic and are being rearranged. Several taxa turned out to represent highly distinct species-poor lineages and consequently new families had to be established, some of them ? like the Stitchbird of New Zealand and the Eurasian Bearded Reedling ? monotypic with only one living species.[19] It seems likely that in the Passeri alone, a number of minor lineages will eventually be recognized as distinct superfamilies. For example, the kinglets constitute a single genus with less than 10 species today, but seem to have been among the first perching bird lineages to diverge as the group spread across Eurasia. No particularly close relatives of them have been found among comprehensive studies of the living Passeri, though it is suspected that they might be fairly close to some little-studied tropical Asian groups. Treatment of the nuthatches, wrens, and their closest relatives as a distinct superfamily Certhioidea is increasingly considered justified; the same might eventually apply to the tits and their closest relatives.

This process is still continuing. Therefore, the arrangement as presented here is subject to change. However, it should take precedence over unreferenced conflicting treatments in family, genus and species articles here; see the next section for default sources.

Taxonomic list of Passeriformes families

[ Back to top ]
Female (left) and male Rifleman or tititipounamu (Acanthisitta chloris), one of the 2 surviving species of suborder Acanthisitti.

This list is in taxonomic order, placing related species/groups next to each other. The Passerida subdivisions are updated as needed from the default sequence of the Handbook of the Birds of the World,[20] based on the most modern and comprehensive studies.[21]

Regarding arrangement of families

The families are sorted into a somewhat unusual sequence. This is because so many reallocations have taken place since about 2005 that a definite arrangement has not been established yet. The present sequence is an attempt to preserve as much of the traditional sequence while giving priority to adequately addressing the relationships between the families.

Suborder Acanthisitti

Rainbow Pitta (Pitta iris), a fairly dark ground-living bird with brilliant color patches, like most Pittidae.

Suborder Tyranni

Suboscines

Adult male Golden-headed Manakins (Pipra erythrocephala) have striking display plumage, as do line with many of their relatives.
Noisy Scrub-bird (Atrichornis clamosus), one of the most plesiomorphic Passeri.

Suborder Passeri

Songbirds or oscines

Yellow-faced Honeyeater
Male Regent Bowerbird (Sericulus chrysocephalus, Ptilonorhynchidae)

Infraorder Passerida

Lesser Striped Swallow (Cecropis abyssinica), showing some apomorphies of its ancient yet highly advanced lineage.
Hermit Thrush ( Catharus guttatus), like many Muscicapoidea a stout and cryptic bird with complex vocalizations.
Brown-headed Nuthatch (Sitta pusilla). Nuthatches can climb downwards head-first.
Like these male (right) and female Gouldian Finches (Erythrura gouldiae), ...
... or this Green-and-gold Tanager (Tangara schrankii), many Passeroidea are very colorful.

Footnotes

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  1. ^ Ernst Mayr, "The Number of Species of Birds", The Auk, Volume 63, Number 1 (January, 1946), p.67
  2. ^ Rebecca Stefoff(2008), "The Bird Class", Marshall Cavendish Benchmark
  3. ^ The name wren has been applied to other, unrelated birds in Australia and New Zealand. The 27 Australasian "wren" species in the family Maluridae are unrelated, as are the New Zealand wrens in the family Acanthisittidae, the antwrens in the family Thamnophilidae, and the wren-babblers of the family Timaliidae. For the monophyly of the "true wrens", Troglodytidae, see F.K. Barker, "Monophyly and relationships of wrens (Aves: Troglodytidae): a congruence analysis of heterogeneous mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence data", Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 2004
  4. ^ The context is summarised in Gareth J. Dyke and Marcel van Tuinen, "The evoluti onary radiation of modern birds (Neornithes): reconciling molecules, morphology and the fossil record", Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 141.2 (June 2004:153?177)
  5. ^ L. Christidis, A. Cooper, M. Irestedt, et al., "A Gondwanan origin of passerine birds supported by DNA sequences of the endemic New Zealand wrens" Proceedings of the Royal Society B, February 2002:235?241.
  6. ^ Johansson & Ericson (2003);
  7. ^ See e.g. Boles (1997), Manegold et al. (2004), Mayr & Manegold (2006)
  8. ^ Boles (1997)
  9. ^ Worthy et al. (2007)
  10. ^ The last common ancestor of all songbirds most likely had a decidedly longer tail. See del Hoyo et al . (2003, 2004).
  11. ^ Specimen SMF Av 504. A flattened right hand of a passerine perhaps 10 cm long overall. If suboscine, perhaps closer to Cotingidae than to Eurylaimides: Roux (2002), Mayr & Manegold (2006)
  12. ^ Huguenet et al. (2003), Mayr & Manegold (2006)
  13. ^ Specimens SMF Av 487?496; SMNS 86822, 86825-86826; MNHN SA 1259?1263: tibiotarsus remains of small, possibly basal Passeriformes: Manegold et al. (2004)
  14. ^ A partial coracoid of a probable Muscicapoidea, possibly Turdidae; distal tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus of a smallish to mid-sized passerine which may be the same as the preceding; proximal ulna and tarsometatarsus of a Paridae-sized passerine: G?l et al. (1998?1999, 2000)
  15. ^ A humerus diaphysis piece of a swallow-sized passerine: H?r et al. (2001)
  16. ^ H?r et al. (2001)
  17. ^ Manegold et al. (2004)
  18. ^ Distal right humerus, possibly suboscine: Noriega & Chiappe (1991, 1993)
  19. ^ The former does not even have recognized subspecies, while the latter is one of the most singular birds alive today. Good photos of a Bearded Reedling are for example here and here.
  20. ^ del Hoyo et al. (2003?)
  21. ^ Lovette & Bermingham (2000), Cibois et al. (2001), Barke r et al. (2002, 2004), Ericson & Johansson (2003), Beresford et al. (2005), Alstr?m et al. (2006), J?nsson & Fjelds? (2006)
  22. ^ Gill, F., Wright, M. & Donsker, D. (2008). IOC World Bird Names (version 1.6). Available at http://www.worldbirdnames.org/
  23. ^ Lovette, I.J. (2008). Convergent Evolution: Raising a Family from the Dead. Current Biology. Volume 18, Issue 24, 23 December 2008, Pages R1132-R1134.
  24. ^ Fleischer R.C., James H.F., and Olson S.L. (2008). Convergent Evolution of Hawaiian and Australo-Pacific Honeyeaters from Distant Songbird Ancestors. Current Bio logy, Volume 18, Issue 24, 1927?1931, 11 December 2008.
p>

A passerine is a bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders: with over 5,000 identified species,[1] it has roughly twice as many species as the largest of the mammal orders, the Rodentia. It contains over 110 families, the second most of any order of vertebrates (after the Perciformes).

The names "passerines" and "Passeriformes" are derived from Passer domesticus, the scientific name of the eponymous species?the House Sparrow?and ultimately from the Latin term passer for Passer sparrows and similar small birds.

Characteristics

[ Back to top ]

The order is divided into thre e suborders, Tyranni (suboscines), Passeri (oscines), and the basal Acanthisitti. Oscines have the best control of their syrinx muscles among birds, producing a wide range of songs and other vocalizations (though some of them, such as the crows, do not sound musical to human beings); some such as the lyrebird are accomplished imitators. The Acanthisittids or New Zealand wrens are tiny birds restricted to New Zealand, at least in modern times; they were long placed in Passeri; their taxonomic position is uncertain, though they seem to be a distinct and very ancient group.

Most passerines are smaller than typical members of other avian orders. The heaviest and altogether largest passerines are the Thick-billed Raven and the larger races of Common Raven, each exceeding 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) and 70 cm (28 in). The Superb Lyrebird and some birds-of-paradise, due to very long tails or tail coverts, are longer overall.[verificati on needed] The smallest passerine is the Short-tailed Pygmy-Tyrant, at 6.5 cm (2.6 in) and 4.2 g (0.15 oz).

Pterylosis or the feather tracts in a typical passerine

The foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward and one toe directed backwards, called anisodactyl arrangement. This arrangement enables the passerine birds to perch upon vertical surfaces, such as trees and cliffs. The toes have no webbing or joining, but in some cotingas the second and third toes are united at their basal third. The hind toe joins the leg at the same level as the front toes. In other orders of birds the toe arrangement is different. The leg muscle of passerine birds contains a special adaption for perchi ng. It will automatically tighten and become stiff if the bird starts to lose hold of the branch on which it is perching. This enables passerines to sleep while perching without falling off. This is especially useful for passerine birds that develop nocturnal lifestyles.[2]

Most passerine birds develop twelve tail feathers, though the Superb Lyrebird has sixteen.[citation needed] Certain species of passerines have stiff tail feathers, which help the birds balance themselves when perching upon vertical surfaces.

The chicks of passerines are altricial: blind, featherless, and helpless when hatched from their eggs. This requires that the chicks receive a lot of parental care. Most passerines lay colored eggs, in contrast with non-passerines, most of whose eggs are white except in some ground-nesting groups such as Charadriiformes and nightjars, where camouflage i s necessary, and some parasitic cuckoos, which match the passerine host's egg.

Clutches vary considerably in size: some larger passerines of Australia such as lyrebirds and scrub-robins lay only a single egg, most smaller passerines in warmer climates lay between two and five, whilst in the higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere hole-nesting species like tits can lay up to a dozen and other species around five or six.

Origin and evolution

[ Back to top ]

The evolutionary history of the passerine families and the relationships among them remained rather mysterious until the late 20th century. In many cases, passerine families were grouped together on the basis of morphological similarities which, it is now believed, are the result of convergent evolution, not a close genetic relationship. For example, the "wrens" of the northern hemisphere, those of Australia, and those of New Zealand look very similar and behave in similar ways, and ye t belong to three far-flung branches of the passerine family tree; they are as unrelated as it is possible to be while remaining Passeriformes.[3]

Much research remains to be done, but advances in molecular biology and improved paleobiogeographical data are gradually revealing a clearer picture of passerine origins and evolution that reconciles molecular affinities, the constraints of morphology and the specifics of the fossil record.[4] It is now thought that the first passerines evolved in Gondwana at some time in the Paleogene, maybe around the Late Paleocene some 60?55 mya.[5] The initial split was between the Tyranni, the songbirds, the Eurylaimides and the New Zealand "wrens", which must have diverged during a short period of time (some million years at most). The Passeriformes ap parently evolved out of a fairly close-knit clade of "near passerines" which contains such birds as the Piciformes and Coraciiformes.[6]

A little later, a great radiation of forms took place out of Australia-New Guinea: the Passeri or songbirds. A major branch of the Passeri, "Parvorder Passerida", emerged either as the sister group to the basal lineages and corvoids ("Parvorder Corvida"), or more likely as a subgroup of it, and expanded deep into Eurasia and Africa, where there was a further explosive radiation of new lineages. This eventually led to three major passeridan lineages comprising about 4,000 species, which in addition to the corvoidan clade and numerous minor lineages make up songbird diversity today. There has been extensive biogeographical mixing, with northern forms returning to the south, southern forms moving north, and so on.

Fossil record

Earliest passerines

Perching bird osteology, especi ally of the limb bones, is rather diagnostic.[7] However, the early fossil record is poor because the first Passeriformes were apparently on the small side of the present size range, and their delicate bones did not preserve well. QM specimens F20688 (carpometacarpus) and F24685 (tibiotarsus) from Murgon, Queensland are fossil bone fragments clearly recognizable as passeriform; they represent two species of approximately 10 and 20 cm in overall length and prove that some 55 mya, barely into the Early Eocene, early perching birds were recognizably distinct.[8]

Male Superb Lyrebird (Menura novaehollandiae ). This very primitive songbird shows strong sexual dimorphism, with a peculiarly apomorphic display plumage in males.

A quite similar group, the Zygodactylidae (named for their zygodactylous approach to perching) independently arose at much the same time ? and possibly from closely related ancestors ? in the landmasses bordering the North Atlantic, which at that time was only some two-thirds of its present width.

Until the discovery of the Australian fossils Palaeospiza bella from the Priabonian Florissant Fossil Beds (Late Eocene, around 35 mya) was the oldest known passeriform. However, it is now considered a non-passeriform near passerine.

From the Bathans Formation at the Manuherikia River in Otago, New Zealand, MNZ S42815 (a distal right tarsometatarsus of a Tui-sized bird) and several bones of at least one species of Saddleback-sized bird have recently been described. These date from the Early to Middle Miocene (Awamoan to Lillburnian, 19-16 mya).[9]

Modern knowledge about the living passerines' interrelationships (see the list of families below) suggests that the last common ancestor of all living Passeriformes was a small forest bird, probably with a stubby tail[10] and an overall drab coloration, but possibly with marked sexual dimorphism. The latter trait seems to have been lost and re-evolved multiple times in songbird evolution alone, judging from its distribution among the extant lineages. Sexual dichromatism is very rare among the basal lineages of Passerida, and probably their plesiomorphic condition. But among the youngest passerid clade, the Passeroidea, extremely colorful males and drab females are common, if not the rule. On the other hand, among the basalmost Passeri there are a considerable number of strongly dimorphic lineages too, such as the very ancient Menuridae as well as many Meliphagoidea and Corvoidea. Sexual dimorphism is also not uncommon in the Acanthisittidae and prominent in some suboscines such as the Pipridae and Cotingidae.

Early European passerines

In Europe, perching birds are not too uncommon in the fossil record from the Oligocene onwards, but most are too fragmentary for a more definite placement:

Wieslochia was possibly not a member of any extant suborder. That not only the Passeri expanded much beyond their region of origin is proven by an undetermined broadbill (Eurylaimidae) from the Early Miocene (roughly 20 mya) of Wintershof, Germany, and the indeterminate Late Oligocene suboscine from France listed above. Even very basal Passeriformes might have be en common in Europe until the Middle Miocene, some 12 mya.[17] Extant Passeri superfamilies were quite distinct by that time and are known since about 12?13 mya when modern genera were present in the corvoidean and basal songbirds. The modern diversity of Passerida genera is known mostly from the Late Miocene onwards and into the Pliocene (about 10?2 mya). Pleistocene and early Holocene lagerst?tten (<1.8 mya) yield numerous extant species, and many yield almost nothing but extant species or their chronospecies and paleosubspecies.

American fossils

In the Americas, the fossil record is more scant before the Pleistocene, from which several still-existing suboscine families are documented. Apart from the indeterminable MACN-SC-1411 (Pinturas Early/Middle Miocene of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina),[18] an extinct lineage of perching b irds has been described from the Late Miocene of California, USA: the Palaeoscinidae with the single genus Paleoscinis. "Palaeostruthus" eurius (Pliocene of Florida) probably belongs to an extant family, most likely passeroidean.

Systematics and taxonomy

[ Back to top ]

Initially,[citation needed] the Corvida and Passerida were classified as "parvorders" in the suborder Passeri; in accord with the usual taxonomic practice, they would probably be ranked as infraorders. As originally envisioned in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, they contained, respectively, the large superfamilies Corvoidea and Meliphagoidea as well as minor lineages, and the superfamilies Sylvioidea, Muscicapoidea and Passeroidea.

The peculiar Bearded Reedling, Panurus biarmicus, may be the most enigmatic passerine. No truly close relatives have been identified.

This arrangement has been found to be overly simplified by more recent research. Since the mid 2000s, literally dozens of studies are being published which try rather successfully to resolve the phylogeny of the passeriform radiation. For example, the Corvida in the traditional sense were a rather arbitrary assemblage of early and/or minor lineages of passeriform birds of Old World origin, generally from the region of Australia, New Zealand, and Wallacea. The Passeri on the other hand can be made monophyletic by moving some families about, but the "clean" three-superfamily-arrangement has turned out to be far more complex and it is uncertain whether future authors will stick to it.

Major "wastebin" families such as the Old World warblers and Old World babblers have turned out to be paraphyletic and are being rearranged. Several taxa turned out to represent highly distinct species-poor lineages and consequently new families had to be established, some of them ? like the Stitchbird of New Zealand and the Eurasian Bearded Reedling ? monotypic with only one living species.[19] It seems likely that in the Passeri alone, a number of minor lineages will eventually be recognized as distinct superfamilies. For example, the kinglets constitute a single genus with less than 10 species today, but seem to have been among the first perching bird lineages to diverge as the group spread across Eurasia. No particularly close relatives of them have been found among comprehensive studies of the living Passeri, though it is suspected that they might be fairly close to some little-studied tropical Asian groups. Treatment of the nuthatches, wrens, and their closest relatives as a distinct superfamily Certhioidea i s increasingly considered justified; the same might eventually apply to the tits and their closest relatives.

This process is still continuing. Therefore, the arrangement as presented here is subject to change. However, it should take precedence over unreferenced conflicting treatments in family, genus and species articles here; see the next section for default sources.

Taxonomic list of Passeriformes families

[ Back to top ]
Female (left) and male Rifleman or tititipounamu (Acanthisitta chloris), one of the 2 surviving species of suborder Acanthisitti.

This list is in taxonomic order, placing related species/groups next to each othe r. The Passerida subdivisions are updated as needed from the default sequence of the Handbook of the Birds of the World,[20] based on the most modern and comprehensive studies.[21]

Regarding arrangement of families

The families are sorted into a somewhat unusual sequence. This is because so many reallocations have taken place since about 2005 that a definite arrangement has not been established yet. The present sequence is an attempt to preserve as much of the traditional sequence while giving priority to adequately addressing the relationships between the families.

Suborder Acanthisitti

Rainbow Pitta (Pitta iris), a fairly dark ground-living bird with brilliant color patches, like most Pittidae.

Suborder Tyranni

Suboscines

Adult male Golden-headed Manakins (Pipra erythrocephala) have striking display plumage, as do line with many of their relatives .
Noisy Scrub-bird (Atrichornis clamosus), one of the most plesiomorphic Passeri.

Suborder Pass eri

Songbirds or oscines

Yellow-faced Honeyeater
Male Regent Bowerbird (Sericulus chrysocephalus, Ptilonorhynchidae)

Infraorder Passerida

Lesser Striped Swallow (Cecropis abyssinica), showing some apomorphies of its ancient yet highly advanced lineage.
Hermit Thrush (Catharus guttatus), like many Muscicapoidea a stout and cryptic bird with complex vocalizations.
Brown-headed Nuthatch (Sitta pusilla). Nuthatches can climb downwards head-first.
Like these male (right) and female Gouldian Finches (Erythrura gouldiae), ...
... or this Green-and-gold Tanager (Tangara schrankii), many Passeroidea are very colorful.

Footnotes

[ Back to top ]
  1. ^ Ernst Mayr, "The Number of Species of Birds", The Auk, Volume 63, Number 1 (January, 1946), p.67
  2. ^ Rebecca Stefoff(2008), "The Bird Class", Marshall Cavendish Benchmark
  3. ^ The name wren has been applied to other, unrelated birds in Australia and New Zealand. The 27 Australasian "wren" species in the family Maluridae are unrelated, as are the New Zealand wrens in the family Acanthisittidae, the antwrens in the family Thamnophilidae, and the wren-babblers of the family Timaliidae. For the monophyly of the "true wrens", Troglodytidae, see F.K. Barker, "Monophyly and relationships of wrens (Aves: Troglodytidae): a congruence analysis of heterogeneous mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence data", Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 2004
  4. ^ The contex t is summarised in Gareth J. Dyke and Marcel van Tuinen, "The evolutionary radiation of modern birds (Neornithes): reconciling molecules, morphology and the fossil record", Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 141.2 (June 2004:153?177)
  5. ^ L. Christidis, A. Cooper, M. Irestedt, et al., "A Gondwanan origin of passerine birds supported by DNA sequences of the endemic New Zealand wrens" Proceedings of the Royal Society B, February 2002:235?241.
  6. ^ Johansson & Ericson (2003);
  7. ^ See e.g. Boles (1997), Manegold et al. (2004), Mayr & Manegold (2006)
  8. ^ Boles (1997)
  9. ^ Worthy et al. (2007)
  10. ^ The last common ancestor of all son gbirds most likely had a decidedly longer tail. See del Hoyo et al. (2003, 2004).
  11. ^ Specimen SMF Av 504. A flattened right hand of a passerine perhaps 10 cm long overall. If suboscine, perhaps closer to Cotingidae than to Eurylaimides: Roux (2002), Mayr & Manegold (2006)
  12. ^ Huguenet et al. (2003), Mayr & Manegold (2006)
  13. ^ Specimens SMF Av 487?496; SMNS 86822, 86825-86826; MNHN SA 1259?1263: tibiotarsus remains of small, possibly basal Passeriformes: Manegold et al. (2004)
  14. ^ A partial coracoid of a probable Muscicapoidea, possibly Turdidae; distal tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus of a smallish to mid-sized passerine which may be the same as the preceding; proximal ulna and tarsometatarsus of a Paridae-sized passerine: G?l et al. (1998?1999, 2000)
  15. ^ A humerus diaphysis piece of a swallow-sized passerine: H?r et al. (2001)
  16. ^ H?r et al. (2001)
  17. ^ Manegold et al. (2004)
  18. ^ Distal right humerus, possibly suboscine: Noriega & Chiappe (1991, 1993)
  19. ^ The former does not even have recognized subspecies, while the latter is one of the most singular birds alive today. Good photos of a Bearded Reedling are for example here and here.
  20. ^ del Hoyo et al. (2003?)
  21. ^ Lovette & Bermingham (2000), Cibois et al. (2001), Barker et al. (2002, 2004), Ericson & Johansson (2003), Beresford et al. (2005), Alstr?m et al. (2006), J?nsson & Fjelds? (2006)
  22. ^ Gill, F., Wright, M. & Donsker, D. (2008). IOC World Bird Names (version 1.6). Available at http://www.worldbirdnames.org/
  23. ^ Lovette, I.J. (2008). Convergent Evolution: Raising a Family from the Dead. Current Biology. Volume 18, Issue 24, 23 December 2008, Pages R1132-R1134.
  24. ^ Fleischer R.C., James H.F., and Olson S.L. (2008). Convergent Evolution of Hawaiian and Austral o-Pacific Honeyeaters from Distant Songbird Ancestors. Current Biology, Volume 18, Issue 24, 1927?1931, 11 December 2008.

References

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  • Alstr?m, Per; Ericson, Per G.P.; Olsson, Urban & Sundberg, Per (2006): Phylogeny and classification of the avian superfamily Sylvioidea. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. '38'(2): 381?397. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.05.015 PMID 16054402
  • Barker, F. Keith; Barrowclough, George F. & Groth, Jeff G. (2002): A phylogenetic hypothesis for passerine birds: taxonomic and biogeographic implications of an analysis of nuclear DNA sequence data. Proc. R. Soc. B '269'(1488): 295?308. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1883 PDF fulltext
  • Barker, F. Keith; Cibois, Alice; Schikler, Peter A.; Feinstein, Julie & Cracraft, Joel (2004): Phylogeny and diversification of the largest avian radiation. PNAS '101'(30): 11040-11045. doi:10.1073/pnas.0401892101 PMID 15263073 PDF fulltext Supporting information
  • Beresford, P.; Barker, F.K.; Ryan, P.G. & Crowe, T.M. (2005): African endemics span the tree of songbirds (Passeri): molecular systematics of several evolutionary 'enigmas'. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B '272'(1565): 849?858. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2997 PDF fulltext Electronic appendix
  • Boles, Walter E. (1997): Fossil Songbirds (Passeriformes) from the Early Eocene of Australia. Emu '97'(1): 43?50. doi:10.1071/MU97004
  • Cibois, Alice; Slikas, Beth; Schulenberg, Thomas S. & Pasquet, Eric (2001): An endemic radiation of Malagasy songbirds is revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Evolution '55'(6): 1198?1206. DOI:10.1554/0014-3820(2001)055[1198:AEROMS]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext
  • del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Christie, D. (eds.) (2003): Handbook of the Birds of the World (Vol. 8: Broadbills to Tapaculos). Lynx Edicions. ISBN 8487334504
  • del Hoyo, J .; Elliot, A. & Christie, D. (eds.) (2004): Handbook of the Birds of the World (Vol. 9: Cotingas to Pipits and Wagtails. Lynx Edicions). ISBN 8487334695
  • del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Christie, D. (eds.) (2005): Handbook of the Birds of the World (Vol. 10: Cuckoo-Shrikes to Thrushes. Lynx Edicions). ISBN 8487334725
  • del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Christie, D. (eds.) (2006): Handbook of the Birds of the World (Vol. 11: Old World Flycatchers to Old World Warblers). Lynx Edicions. ISBN 849655306X
  • del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Christie, D. (eds.) (2007): Handbook of the Birds of the World (Vol. 12: Picathartes to Tits and Chickadees). Lynx Edicions. ISBN 9788496553422
  • Dickinson, E.C. (ed.) (2003): The Howard and Moore complete checklist of the birds of the World (3rd edition). Christopher Helm, London. ISBN 071366536X
  • Ericson, Per G.P. & Johansson, Ulf S. (2 003): Phylogeny of Passerida (Aves: Passeriformes) based on nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. '29'(1): 126?138 doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00067-8 PDF fulltext
  • G?l, Erika; H?r, J?nos; Kessler, Eug?n & K?kay, J?zsef (1998?99): K?z?ps?-mioc?n ?smaradv?nyok, a M?trasz?l?s, R?k?czi-k?polna alatti ?tbev?g?sb?l. I. A M?trasz?l?s 1. lel?hely [Middle Miocene fossils from the sections at the R?k?czi chapel at M?traszolos. Locality M?trasz?l?s I.]. Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis '23': 33?78. [Hungarian with English abstract] PDF fulltext
  • G?l, Erika; H?r, J?nos; Kessler, Eug?n, K?kay, J?zsef & M?rton, Venczel (2000): K?z?ps?-mioc?n ?smaradv?nyok a M?trasz?l?s, R?k?czi-k?polna alatti ?tbev?g?sb?l II. A M?trasz?l?s 2. lel?hely [Middle Miocene fossils from the section of the road at the R?k?czi Chapel, M?trasz?l?s. II. Locality M?trasz?l?s 2]. Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis '24': 39?75. [Hungarian with English abstract] PDF fulltext
  • H?r, J?nos; K?kay, J?zsef; Venczel, M?rton; G?l, Erika & GKessler, Eug?n (2001): El?zetes besz?mol? a fels?t?rk?nyi "G?d?r-kert" n. ?sl?nytani lel?helykomplex ?jravizsg?lat?r?l [A preliminary report on the revised investigation of the paleontological locality-complex "G?d?r-kert" at Fels?t?rk?ny, Northern Hungary)] Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis '25': 41?64 [Hungarian with English abstract]. PDF fulltext
  • Hugueney, Marguerite; Berthet, Didier; Bodergat, Anne-Marie; Escuilli?, Fran?ois; Mourer-Chauvir?, C?cile & Wattinne, Aur?lia (2003): La lim ite Oligoc?ne-Mioc?ne en Limagne: changements fauniques chez les mammif?res, oiseaux et ostracodes des diff?rents niveaux de Billy-Cr?chy (Allier, France) [The Oligocene-Miocene boundary in Limagne: faunal changes in the mammals, birds and ostracods from the different levels of Billy-Cr?chy (Allier, France)] [French with English abstract]. Geobios '36'(6): 719?731. doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2003.01.002 (HTML abstract)
  • Johansson, Ulf S. & Ericson, Per G.P. (2003): Molecular support for a sister group relationship between Pici and Galbulae (Piciformes sensu Wetmore 1960). J. Avian Biol. '34'(2): 185?197. doi:10.1034/j.1600-048X.2003.03103.x PDF fulltext
  • J?nsson, Knud A. & Fjelds?, Jon (2006): A phylogenetic supertree of oscine passerine birds (Aves: Passeri). Zool. Scripta '35'(2): 149?186. doi:10.1111/j.1463-6409.2006.00221.x (HTML abstract)
  • Lovette, Irby J.& Bermingham, Eldredge (2000): c-mos Variation in Songbirds: Molecular Evolution, Phylogenetic Implications, and Comparisons with Mitochondrial Differentiation. Mol. Biol. Evol. '17'(10): 1569?1577. PDF fulltext
  • Mayr, Gerald & Manegold, Albrecht (2006): A Small Suboscine-like Passeriform Bird from the Early Oligocene of France. Condor '108'(3): 717?720. [English with Spanish abstract] DOI:10.1650/0010-5422(2006)108[717:ASSPBF]2.0.CO;2 HTML abstract
  • Manegold, Albrecht; Mayr , Gerald & Mourer-Chauvir?, C?cile (2004): Miocene Songbirds and the Composition of the European Passeriform Avifauna. Auk '121'(4): 1155?1160. [English with Spanish abstract] DOI:10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[1155:MSATCO]2.0.CO;2 Imageless HTML fulltext
  • Noriega, Jorge I. & Chiappe, Luis M. (1991): El m?s antiguo Passeriformes de America del Sur. Presentation at VIII Journadas Argentinas de Paleontologia de Vertebrados ["The most ancient passerine from South America"]. [Spanish] Abstract in Ameghiniana '28'(3?4): 410. Google Books fulltext
  • Noriega, Jorge I. & Chiappe, Luis M. (1993): An Early Miocene Passeriform from Argentina. Auk '110'(4): 936?938. PDF fulltext DjVu fulltext
  • Roux, T. (2002): Deux fossiles d'oiseaux de l'Oligoc?ne inf?rieur du Luberon ["Two bird fossils from the Lower Oligocene of Luberon"]. [French[verification needed]] Courrier Scientifique du Parc Naturel R?gional du Luberon '6': 38?57.
  • Worthy, Trevor H.; Tennyson, A.J.D.; Jones, C.; McNamara, J.A. & Douglas, B.J. (2007): Miocene waterfowl and other birds from central Otago, New Zealand. J. Syst. Palaeontol. '5'(1): 1?39. doi:10.1017/S1477201906001957 (HTML abstract)

Taxonomy

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The Order Passeriformes is further organized into finer groupings including:

Families

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Acanthisittidae

The New Zealand wrens, Acanthisittidae, are a family of tiny passerines endemic to New Zealand. They were represented by six known species in four or five genera, although only two species survive in two genera today. They are understood to form a distinct lineage within the passerines, but authorities differ on their assignment to the oscines or suboscines (the two suborders that between them make up the Passeriformes). More recent studies suggest that they form a third, most ancient, suborder Acanthisitti and have no living close relatives at all. They are called "wrens" due to similarities in appearance and behaviour to the true wrens (Troglodytidae), but are not members of that family. [more]

Acanthizidae

The Acanthizidae, also known as the Australasian warblers, are a family of passerine birds which include gerygones, thornbills, and scrubwrens. The Acanthizidae consists of small to medium passerine birds, with a total length varying between 8 and 19 cm. They have short rounded wings, slender bills, long legs, and a short tail. Most species have olive, grey, or brown plumage, although some have patches of a brighter yellow. The smallest species of acanthizid, and indeed the smallest Australian passerine, is the Weebill, the largest is the Pilotbird [more]

Aegithalidae

The long-tailed tits or bushtits, Aegithalidae, are a family of small passerine birds. The family contains 13 species in four genera. [more]

Aegithinidae

The ioras are a family, Aegithinidae, of small passerine bird species found in India and southeast Asia. The family has only four species in a single genus, Aegithina. They are one of only three bird families that are entirely endemic to the Indomalayan ecozone. They were formerly grouped with the other two of those families, the leafbirds and fairy-bluebirds, in the family Irenidae. [more]

Alaudidae

Larks are passerine birds of the family Alaudidae. All species occur in the Old World, and in northern and eastern Australia; only one, the Shore Lark, has spread to North America, where it is called the Horned Lark. Habitats vary widely, but many species live in dry regions. [more]

Atrichornithidae

Scrub-birds are shy, secretive, ground-dwelling birds of the family Atrichornithidae. There are just two species. The Rufous scrub-bird is rare and very restricted in its range, and the Noisy scrub-bird is so rare that until 1961 it was thought to be extinct. Both are native to Australia. [more]

Bombycillidae

The waxwings form the genus Bombycilla of passerine birds. According to most authorities, this is the only genus placed in the family Bombycillidae. [more]

Callaeatidae

The small bird family Callaeidae (also named in some sources as Callaeatidae) is endemic to New Zealand. It contains three monotypic genera; of the three species in the family, only two survive and both of them, the Kokako and the Saddleback, are endangered species, threatened primarily by the predations of introduced mammalian species such as rats, mustelids and possums. A third, the Huia became extinct early in the 20th century. [more]

Callaeidae

A Family in the Kingdom Animalia.[1] [more]

Campephagidae

The cuckooshrikes and allies in the Campephagidae family are small to medium-sized passerine bird species found in the subtropical and tropical Africa, Asia and Australasia. The roughly 85 species are found in eight (or nine) genera which comprise five distinct groups, the 'true' cuckooshrikes (Campephaga, Coracina, , Pteropodocys and Campochaera) the trillers (Lalage), the minivets (Pericrocotus), the flycatcher-shrikes (Hemipus). The wood-shrikes (Tephrodornis) were often considered to be in this family but are probably closer to the helmetshrikes or bushshrikes. Another genus, Chlamydochaera, which has one species, the Black-breasted Fruithunter was often placed in this family but has now been shown to be a thrush (Turdidae). [more]

Cardinalidae

The Cardinals or Cardinalidae are a family of passerine birds found in North and South America. The South American cardinals in the genus Paroaria are placed in another family, the Thraupidae (previously placed in Emberizidae). [more]

Certhiidae

The treecreepers are a family, Certhiidae, of small passerine birds, widespread in wooded regions of the Northern Hemisphere and sub-Saharan Africa. The family contains ten species in two genera, Certhia and Salpornis. Their plumage is dull-colored, and as their name implies, they climb over the surface of trees in search of food. [more]

Chloropseidae

The leafbirds (Chloropseidae) are a family of small passerine bird species found in India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. They are one of only three bird families that are entirely endemic to the Indomalayan ecozone. They were formerly grouped with the ioras and fairy-bluebirds in the family Irenidae. As presently defined, the leafbird family is monotypic, with all species placed in the genus Chloropsis. [more]

Cinclidae

Dippers are members of the genus Cinclus in the bird family Cinclidae, named for their bobbing or dipping movements. They are unique among passerines for their ability to dive and swim underwater. [more]

Cisticolidae

The Cisticolidae family of small passerine birds is a group of about 110 warblers found mainly in warmer southern regions of the Old World. They are often included within the Old World warbler family Sylviidae. [more]

Climacteridae

There are 7 species of Australasian treecreeper in the passerine bird family Climacteridae. They are medium-small, mostly brown birds with patterning on their underparts, and all are endemic to Australia-New Guinea. They resemble, but are not closely related to, the Holarctic treecreepers. The family is one of several families identified by DNA-DNA hybridisation studies to be part of the Australo-Papuan songbird radiation. There is some molecular support for suggesting that their closest relatives are the large lyrebirds. [more]

Cnemophilidae

The Satinbirds or Cnemophilines, Cnemophilidae are a group of passerine birds which consists of three species found in the mountain forests of New Guinea. They were originally thought to be part of the birds of paradise family Paradisaeidae until genetic research suggested that the birds are not closely related to Birds of Paradise at all and are perhaps closer to Melanocharitidae. [more]

Coerebidae

The Bananaquit (Coereba flaveola) is a species of passerine bird of uncertain relation. It is tentatively placed in the tanager family, but classified as incertae sedis by other authorities such as the American Ornithologists' Union. Its classification is debated, and it is often placed in its own family: Coerebidae. It has recently been suggested the Bananaquit should be split into three species, but this has yet to receive widespread recognition. This small, active nectarivore is found in warmer parts of the Americas, and is generally common. [more]

Colluricinclidae

[more]

Conopophagidae

The gnateaters are a bird family, Conopophagidae, consisting of ten small passerine species in two genera, which occur in South and Central America. The family was formerly restricted to the gnateater genus Conopophaga; analysis of mtDNA cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 sequences (Rice 2005a,b) indicates that the "antpittas" of the genus Pittasoma also belong in this family. The association between this genus and Conopophaga is also supported by traits in their natural history, morphology, and vocalizations (Rice, 2005a). The members of this family are very closely related to the antbirds and less closely to the antpittas and tapaculos. Due to their remote and dim habitat, gnateaters are a little-studied and poorly known family of birds, though they are often sought after by birdwatchers. [more]

Corvidae

Corvidae is a cosmopolitan family of oscine passerine birds that contains the crows, ravens, rooks, jackdaws, jays, magpies, treepies, choughs and nutcrackers. The common English names used are corvids (more technically) or the crow family (more informally), and there are over 120 species. The genus Corvus, including the jackdaws, crows and ravens, makes up over a third of the entire family. [more]

Cotingidae

The cotingas are a large family of passerine bird species found in Central America and tropical South America. Cotingas are birds of forests or forest edges, which mostly eat fruit or insects and fruit. Comparatively little is known about this diverse group, although all have broad bills with hooked tips, rounded wings, and strong legs. They may be the most diverse passerine family in body size, ranging from the 8-cm Kinglet Calyptura to the 50-cm male Amazonian Umbrellabird, although the smaller bird may not be a true cotinga. [more]

Cracticidae

The family Cracticidae, Bellmagpies and allies, gathers together 12 species of mostly crow-like birds native to Australasia and nearby areas. [more]

Dasyornithidae

The bristlebirds are a family, Dasyornithidae, of passerine bird. There are three species in one genus, Dasyornis. The family is endemic to Australia. The genus Dasyornis was sometimes placed in the Acanthizidae or, as a subfamily, Dasyornithinae, along with the Acanthizinae and Pardalotinae, within an expanded Pardalotidae, before being elevated to full family level by Christidis & Boles (2008). [more]

Dendrocolaptidae

The woodcreepers (Dendrocolaptinae) comprise a subfamily of sub-oscine passerine birds endemic to the Neotropics. They have traditionally been considered a distinct family Dendrocolaptidae, but most authorities now place them as a subfamily of the ovenbirds (Furnariidae). They superficially resemble the Old World treecreepers, but they are unrelated and the similarities are due to convergent evolution. The subfamily contains around 57 species in 15 to 20 genera. [more]

Dicaeidae

The flowerpeckers are a family, Dicaeidae , of passerine birds. The family comprises two genera, Prionochilus and Dicaeum, with 44 species in total. The family has sometimes been included in an enlarged sunbird family Nectariniidae. The berrypeckers of the family Melanocharitidae and the painted berrypeckers, Paramythiidae, were once lumped into this family as well. The family is distributed through tropical southern Asia and Australasia from India east to the Philippines and south to Australia. The family is catholic in its habitat preferences, occupying a wide range of environments from sea level to montane habitats. Some species, such as the Mistletoebird of Australia, are recorded as being highly nomadic over parts of their range. [more]

Dicruridae

The drongos are a family of small passerine birds of the Old World tropics, the Dicruridae. This family was sometimes[] much enlarged to include a number of largely Australasian groups, such as the Australasian fantails, monarchs and paradise flycatchers. The name is originally from the indigenous language of Madagascar, where it refers to local species, but is now used to refer to all members of the family. The family is usually treated as having two genera, Chaetorhynchus and Dicrurus. The genus Chaetorhynchus contains a single species, the New Guinea endemic Pygmy Drongo. The placement of this species in the family is highly dubious due to both morphological and genetic differences, and it has recently been placed, along with the closely related Silktail of Fiji, with the fantails (Rhipiduridae). The remaining genus contains the remaining 25 species of drongo. [more]

Emberizidae

The Emberizidae are a large family of passerine birds. They are seed-eating birds with a distinctively shaped bill. [more]

Eopsaltriidae

The bird family Petroicidae includes roughly 45 species in about 15 genera. All are endemic to Australasia: New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand and numerous Pacific Islands as far east as Samoa. For want of an accurate common name, the family is often called the Australasian robins. Within the family the species are known not only as robins but as scrub-robins and flycatchers. They are, however, only distantly related to the Old World family Muscicapidae (to which other species with such names belong) and the monarch flycatchers (Monarchidae). [more]

Estrildidae

The estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They can be classified as the family Estrildidae (weaver-finch), or as a sub-group within the family Passeridae, which also includes the true sparrows. [more]

Eupetidae

The Rail-babbler or Malaysian Rail-babbler (Eupetes macrocerus) is a strange, rail-like, brown and pied inhabitant of the floor of primary forest in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra (the nominate subspecies macrocerus), as well as Borneo (ssp. borneensis), distantly related to African crow-like birds. Its population has greatly decreased because much of the lowland primary forest has been cut, and secondary forests usually have too dense a bottom vegetation or do not offer enough shade to be favourable for the species. However, it is locally still common in logged forest or on hill-forest on slopes, and probably not in immediate danger of extinction. The species is poorly known and rarely seen, in no small part due to its shyness. [more]

Eurylaimidae

The broadbills are a family of small passerine birds, Eurylaimidae. The Smithornis and Pseudocalyptomena species occur in sub-Saharan Africa; the rest extend from the eastern Himalayas to Sumatra and Borneo. The family possibly also includes the Sapayoa from the Neotropics and the asities from Madagascar. [more]

Formicariidae

The Formicariidae, formicariids, or ground antbirds are a family of smallish passerine birds of subtropical and tropical Central and South America. They are between 10 and 20 cm (4?8 in) in length, and are related to the antbirds, Thamnophilidae, and gnateaters, Conopophagidae. This family contains probably (see below) some 100?120 species in 1 or 2 large and a number of fairly small genera. [more]

Fringillidae

[more]

Furnariidae

Ovenbirds or furnariids are a large family of small suboscine passerine birds found in Mexico, and Central and South America. They form the family Furnariidae. The Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus), which breeds in North America, is not actually a furnariid - rather it is a distantly related bird of the wood warbler family, Parulidae. [more]

Hirundinidae

The swallows and martins are a group of passerine birds in the family Hirundinidae which are characterised by their adaptation to aerial feeding. Swallow is used colloquially in Europe as a synonym for the Barn Swallow. [more]

Hypocolidae

A Family in the Kingdom Animalia.[2] [more]

Hypocoliidae

A Family in the Kingdom Animalia.[3] [more]

Icteridae

The Icterids are a group of small to medium-sized, often colorful passerine birds restricted to the New World. Most species have black as a predominant plumage color, often enlivened by yellow, orange or red. The family is extremely varied in size, shape, behavior and coloration. The name, meaning "jaundiced ones" (from the prominent yellow feathers of many species) comes from the Ancient Greek ikteros, through the Latin ictericus. This group includes the New World blackbirds, New World orioles, the Bobolink, meadowlarks, grackles, cowbirds, oropendolas and caciques. [more]

Incerta_sedis

[more]

Irenidae

The two fairy-bluebirds are small passerine bird species found in forests and plantations in tropical southern Asia and the Philippines. They are the sole members of the genus Irena and family Irenidae, and are related to the ioras and leafbirds. [more]

Laniidae

Shrikes are passerine birds of the family Laniidae. The family is composed of thirty-one species in three genera. The family name, and that of the largest genus, Lanius, is derived from the Latin word for "butcher", and some shrikes were also known as "butcher birds" because of their feeding habits. Note that the Australasian butcherbirds are not shrikes. [more]

Malaconotidae

The bushshrikes are smallish passerine bird species. They were formerly classed with the true shrikes in the family Laniidae, but are now considered sufficiently distinctive to be separated from that group as the family Malaconotidae. [more]

Maluridae

The Maluridae are a family of small, insectivorous passerine birds endemic to Australia and New Guinea. Commonly known as wrens, they are unrelated to the true wrens of the Northern Hemisphere. The family includes 14 species of fairywren, 3 emu-wrens, and 10 grasswrens. [more]

Melanocharitidae

The Melanocharitidae, the berrypeckers and longbills, is a small bird family restricted to the forests of New Guinea. The family contains ten species in four (sometimes three) genera. They are small songbirds with generally dull plumage but a range of body shapes. [more]

Meliphagidae

The honeyeaters are a large and diverse family of small to medium sized birds most common in Australia and New Guinea, but also found in New Zealand, the Pacific islands as far east as Samoa and Tonga, and the islands to the north and west of New Guinea known as Wallacea. Bali, on the other side of the Wallace Line, has a single species. [more]

Menuridae

A Lyrebird is either of two species of ground-dwelling Australian birds, that form the genus, Menura, and the family Menuridae. They are most notable for their superb ability to mimic natural and artificial sounds from their environment. Lyrebirds have unique plumes of neutral colored tailfeathers. [more]

Mimidae

The mimids are the New World family of passerine birds, Mimidae, that includes thrashers, mockingbirds, tremblers, and the New World catbirds. As their name (Latin for "mimic") suggests, these birds are notable for their vocalization, especially some species' remarkable ability to mimic a wide variety of birds and other sounds heard outdoors. [more]

Monarchidae

The monarch flycatchers (Monarchidae) comprise a family of passerine birds which includes boatbills, shrikebills, paradise flycatchers, and magpie-larks. [more]

Motacillidae

The Motacillidae are a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. There are around 65 species in 6 genera and they include the wagtails, longclaws and pipits. The longclaws are entirely restricted to the Afrotropics, and the wagtails are predominately found in Europe, Africa and Asia, with two species migrating and breeding in Alaska. The pipits have the most cosmopolitan distribution, being found across mostly in the Old World but occurring also in the Americas and oceanic islands such as New Zealand and the Falklands. Two African species, the Yellow-breasted Pipit and Sharpe's Longclaw are sometimes placed in a separate seventh genus, Hemimacronyx, which is closely related to the longclaws. [more]

Muscicapidae

The Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae is a large family of small passerine birds mostly restricted to the Old World. These are mainly small arboreal insectivores, many of which, as the name implies, take their prey on the wing. [more]

Nectariniidae

The sunbirds and spiderhunters are a family, Nectariniidae, of very small passerine birds. There are 132 species in 15 genera. The family is distributed throughout Africa, the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia and just reaches northern Australia. Most sunbirds feed largely on nectar, but also take insects and spiders, especially when feeding young. Flower tubes that bar access to nectar because of their shape, are simply punctured at the base near the nectaries. Fruit is also part of the diet of some species. Their flight is fast and direct on their short wings. [more]

None

[more]

Oriolidae

The orioles are a family of Old World passerine birds. [more]

Orthonychidae

The Orthonychidae is a family of birds with a single genus, Orthonyx, which comprises three species of passerine birds endemic to Australia and New Guinea, the Logrunners and the Chowchilla. Some authorities consider the Australian family Cinclosomatidae to be part of the Orthonychidae. The three species use their stiffened tails to brace themselves when feeding. [more]

Pachycephalidae

The family Pachycephalidae, collectively the whistlers, includes the whistlers, shrike-thrushes, shrike-tits, pitohuis and Crested Bellbird, and is part of the ancient Australo-Papuan radiation of songbirds. Its members range from small to medium in size, and occupy most of Australasia. Australia and New Guinea are the centre of their diversity, with species and genera also reaching New Zealand, and in the case of the whistlers, the South Pacific islands as far as Tonga and Samoa and parts of Asia as far as India. The exact delimitation of boundaries of the family are uncertain, for example the genus Mohoua, which is endemic to New Zealand has been placed with the family based on a number of morphological features and DNA-DNA hybridization studies, but the placement is still controversial. [more]

Panuridae

A Family in the Kingdom Animalia.[4] [more]

Paradisaeidae

The birds-of-paradise are members of the family Paradisaeidae of the order Passeriformes. The majority of species in this family are found on the island of New Guinea and its satellites, with a few species occurring in the Moluccas and eastern Australia. The family has forty species in 14 genera. The members of this family are perhaps best known for the plumage of the males of most species, in particular highly elongated and elaborate feathers extending from the beak, wings or head. For the most part they are confined to dense rainforest habitat. The diet of all species is dominated by fruit and to a lesser extent arthropods. The birds-of-paradise have a variety of breeding systems, ranging from monogamy to lek-based polygamy. [more]

Paramythiidae

The painted berrypeckers, Paramythiidae, are a very small bird family restricted to the mountain forests of New Guinea. The family comprises two species in two genera: the Tit Berrypecker (Oreocharis arfaki) and the Crested Berrypecker (Paramythia montium). These are colorful medium-sized birds which feed on fruit and some insects. These species were formerly included in the Dicaeidae, but DNA-DNA hybridization studies showed these species were related to each other but distinct from the flowerpeckers. Some sources [1] group painted berrypeckers as two genera belonging to the berrypecker family Melanocharitidae. [more]

Pardalotidae

Pardalotes or peep-wrens are a family, Pardalotidae, of very small, brightly colored birds native to Australia, with short tails, strong legs, and stubby blunt beaks. This family is composed of four species in one genus, Pardalotus, and several subspecies. The name derives from a Greek word meaning "spotted". The family once contained several other species now split into the family Acanthizidae. [more]

Paridae

The tits, chickadees, and titmice constitute Paridae, a large family of small passerine birds which occur in the northern hemisphere and Africa. Most were formerly classified in the genus Parus. [more]

Parulidae

The New World warblers or wood-warblers are a group of small, often colorful, passerine birds restricted to the New World. They are closely related to neither the Old World warblers nor the Australian warblers. [more]

Passeridae

[more]

Petroicidae

The bird family Petroicidae includes roughly 45 species in about 15 genera. All are endemic to Australasia: New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand and numerous Pacific Islands as far east as Samoa. For want of an accurate common name, the family is often called the Australasian robins. Within the family the species are known not only as robins but as scrub-robins and flycatchers. They are, however, only distantly related to the Old World family Muscicapidae (to which other species with such names belong) and the monarch flycatchers (Monarchidae). [more]

Philepittidae

The asities, are a family, the Philepittidae, of small suboscine passerine birds. The family consists of four species in two genera endemic to Madagascar. They were thought to have been related to the pittas, hence the scientific name of the family, but a 1993 study suggested that they are actually just a subfamily of broadbills. The morphology of the syrinx is very similar to the Grauer's Broadbill of Africa. Here they are considered traditionally as a separate family. Some authors have placed the Sapayoa of South America in the family, although it is now mostly considered a broadbill. The Neodrepanis species are known as sunbird-asities and were formerly known as false sunbirds. [more]

Picathartidae

The picathartes, rockfowl or bald crows are a small genus of two passerine bird species forming the family Picathartidae found in the rain-forests of tropical west and central Africa. They have unfeathered heads, and feed on insects and invertebrates picked from damp rocky areas. Both species are totally non-migratory, being dependent on a specialised rocky jungle habitat. [more]

Pipridae

The manakins are a family, Pipridae, of unique small suboscine passerine birds. The family contains some 60 species. They are distributed through the American tropics. The name is from Middle Dutch mannekijn 'little man' (also the source of the different bird name mannikin). [more]

Pittidae

[more]

Pityriaseidae

The Bornean Bristlehead (Pityriasis gymnocephala), also variously known as the Bristled Shrike, Bald-headed Crow or the Bald-headed Wood-Shrike, is the only member of the passerine family Pityriaseidae and genus Pityriasis. It is an enigmatic and uncommon species of the rainforest canopy of Borneo. [more]

Platysteiridae

Platysteiridae is a family of small stout passerine birds of the African tropics. The family contains the wattle-eyes, batises and shrike-flycatchers. They were previously classed as a subfamily of the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae. [more]

Ploceidae

A Family in the Kingdom Animalia.[5] [more]

Polioptilidae

The 15-20 species of small passerine birds in the gnatcatcher family occur in North and South America (except far south and high Andean regions). Most species of this mainly tropical and subtropical group are resident, but the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher of the USA and southern Canada migrates south in winter. They are close relatives of the wrens. [more]

Pomatostomidae

The Pomatostomidae (Australo-Papuan or Australasian babblers, also known as pseudo-babblers) are small to medium-sized birds endemic to Australia-New Guinea. For many years, the Australo-Papuan babblers were classified, rather uncertainly, with the Old World babblers (Timaliidae), on the grounds of similar appearance and habits. More recent research, however, indicates that they are too basal to belong the Passerida - let alone the Sylvioidea where the Old World babblers are placed - and they are now classed as a separate family close to the Orthonychidae (logrunners). Five species in one genus are currently recognised, although the red-breasted subspecies rubeculus of the Grey-crowned Babbler may prove to be a separate species. Further investigation is required. [more]

Prunellidae

The accentors are in the only bird family, the Prunellidae, which is completely endemic to the Palearctic. This small group of closely related passerines are all in a single genus Prunella. All but the Dunnock and the Japanese Accentor are inhabitants of the mountainous regions of Europe and Asia; these two also occur in lowland areas, as does the Siberian Accentor in the far north of Siberia. This genus is not strongly migratory, but they will leave the coldest parts of their range in winter, and make altitudinal movements. [more]

Ptilogonatidae

The silky-flycatchers are a small family, Ptilogonatidae , of passerine birds. The family contains only four species in three genera. They were formerly lumped with waxwings and Hypocolius in the family Bombycillidae, and they are listed in that family by the Sibley-Monroe checklist. The family is named for their silky plumage and their aerial flycatching techniques, although they are unrelated to the Old World flycatchers (Muscicapidae) and the tyrant flycatchers (Tyrannidae). [more]

Ptilonorhynchidae

Bowerbirds () make up the bird family Ptilonorhynchidae. The family has 20 species in eight genera. These are medium-sized passerines, ranging from the Golden Bowerbird (22 cm and 70 grams) to the Great Bowerbird (40 cm and 230 grams). Their diet consists mainly of fruit but may also include insects (fed to young),[clarification needed] flowers, nectar and leaves in some species. [more]

Pycnonotidae

Bulbuls are a family, Pycnonotidae, of medium-sized passerine songbirds. Many forest species are known as greenbuls. The family is distributed across most of Africa and into the Middle East, tropical Asia to Indonesia, and north as far as Japan. A few insular species occur on the tropical islands of the Indian Ocean There are about 130 species in around 24 genera. While some species are found in most habitats, overall African species are predominately found in rainforest whilst rainforest species are rare in Asia, instead preferring more open areas. The only Bulbul which occurs in Europe was spotted in the Cyclades and bears a yellow patch, being otherwise of a snuffy brown and this is possibly the bird which has got mixed up with the nightingale in Sufi, particularly Persian Sufi, poetry. [more]

Regulidae

The kinglets or crests are a small group of birds sometimes included in the Old World warblers, but are frequently given family status because they also resemble the titmice. The scientific name Regulidae is derived from the Latin word regulus for "petty king" or prince, and comes from the colored crowns of adult birds. This family has representatives in North America and Eurasia. There are seven species in this family; one, the Madeira Firecrest, Regulus madeirensis, was only recently split from Common Firecrest as a separate species. One species, the Ruby-crowned Kinglet, differs sufficiently in its voice and plumage to occasionally be afforded its own genus, Corthylio. [more]

Remizidae

The penduline tits are a family of small passerine birds, related to the true tits. All but the Verdin and Fire-capped Tit make elaborate bag nests hanging from trees (whence "penduline", hanging), usually over water; inclusion of the Fire-capped Tit in this family is disputed by some authorities[]. [more]

Rhabdornithidae

The Philippine creepers or rhabdornises are small passerine birds. They are endemic to the Philippines. The group contains a single genus Rhabdornis with three species. They do not migrate, other than to make local movements. [more]

Rhinocryptidae

The tapaculos are a group of small suboscine passeriform birds with numerous species, found mainly in South America and with the highest diversity in the Andean regions. Three species, the Choco, the Pale-throated and the Silvery-fronted Tapaculo, are found in southern Central America. [more]

Rhipiduridae

Fantails are small insectivorous birds of southern Asia and Australasia belonging to the genus Rhipidura in the family Rhipiduridae. Most of the species are about 15 to 18 cm long, specialist aerial feeders, and named as "fantails", but the Australian Willie Wagtail, is a little larger, and though still an expert hunter of insects on the wing, concentrates equally on terrestrial prey. [more]

Saxicolidae

[more]

Sittidae

The nuthatches are a genus, Sitta, of small passerine birds belonging to the family Sittidae. Characterised by large heads, short tails, and powerful bills and feet, nuthatches advertise their territory using loud, simple songs. Most species exhibit grey or bluish upperparts and a black eye stripe. [more]

Sturnidae

Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds in the family Sturnidae. The name "Sturnidae" comes from the Latin word for starling, sturnus. Many Asian species, particularly the larger ones, are called mynas, and many African species are known as glossy starlings because of their iridescent plumage. Starlings occur naturally in the Old World, from Europe, Asia and Africa, to northern Australia and the islands of the tropical Pacific. Several European and Asian species have been introduced to these areas as well as North America, Hawaii and New Zealand, where they generally compete for habitat with native birds and are considered to be invasive species. The starling species familiar to most people in Europe and North America is the European Starling, and throughout much of Asia and the Pacific the Common Myna is indeed common. [more]

Sylviidae

Sylviidae is a family of passerine birds that was part of an assemblage known as the Old World warblers. The family was formerly a wastebin taxon with over 400 species of bird in over 70 genera. The family was poorly defined with many characteristics shared with other families. Advances in classification, particularly helped with molecular data, have led to the splitting out of several new families from within this group. Today the smaller family Sylviidae includes the typical warblers in the genus Sylvia, the parrotbills of Asia (formerly a separate family Paradoxornithidae), a number of babblers formerly placed within the family Timaliidae (which is itself currently being split) and the Wrentit, an unusual North American bird that has been a longstanding taxonomic mystery. [more]

Thamnophilidae

[more]

Thraupidae

The tanagers (sg. ) comprise the bird family Thraupidae, in the order Passeriformes. The family has an American distribution. [more]

Timaliidae

The Old World babblers or timaliids are a large family of mostly Old World passerine birds. They are rather diverse in size and coloration, but are characterised by soft fluffy plumage. These are birds of tropical areas, with the greatest variety in Southeast Asia and the Indian Subcontinent. The timaliids are one of two unrelated groups of birds known as babblers, the other being the Australasian Babblers of the family Pomatostomidae (also known as pseudo-babblers). [more]

Troglodytidae

The wrens are passerine birds in the mainly New World family Troglodytidae. There are approximately 80 species of true wrens in approximately 20 genera. The genus eponymous of the family is Troglodytes. Only the Eurasian Wren occurs in the Old World, where in Anglophone regions it is commonly known simply as the "wren" as it is the originator of the name. The name wren has been applied to other unrelated birds, particularly the New Zealand wrens (Acanthisittidae) and the Australian wrens (Maluridae). [more]

Trudidae

[more]

Turdidae

The thrushes, family Turdidae, are a group of passerine birds that occur worldwide. [more]

Turnagridae

The Piopio or Turnagra are a genus of two passerine birds endemic to New Zealand, both of which are now considered extinct. Sometimes described as New Zealand Thrushes, the Piopio had only a coincidental, passing resemblance to the Thrush family. Piopio have been a longstanding taxonomic mystery. They are often said to have more in common with the Bowerbird families of Australia, but differ in terms of nest construction, egg marking, and voice. A relationship has also suggested with the whistlers (Pachycephalidae). The IOC regarded this family as incertae sedis until the question is resolved whether the genus Turnagra belongs to the Ptilonorhynchidae family. The genus was finally placed in the Old World oriole family Oriolidae, possibly closely related to the figbirds within that family. The specific names of both species were based on mistakes; Turnagra capensis was so named because Anders Sparrman mixed up his specimens and thought the bird had been collected in South Africa. The North Island Turnagra tanagra was so named because it was thought to be related to the tanagers of North America. [more]

Tyrannidae

The tyrant flycatchers (Tyrannidae) are a family of passerine birds which occur throughout North and South America. They are considered the largest family of birds on Earth, with more than 400 species. They are the most diverse avian family in every country in the Americas, except for the United States and Canada. As could be expected from a family this large, the members vary greatly in shape, patterns, size and colors. Some Tyrant flycatchers superficially resemble the Old World flycatchers. They are members of suborder Tyranni (suboscines) that do not have the sophisticated vocal capabilities of other songbirds. [more]

Vangidae

The vangas (from vanga, Malagasy for the Hook-billed Vanga, Vanga curvirostris) are a group of little-known small to medium-sized passerine birds restricted to Madagascar and the Comoros. They are usually classified as the family Vangidae. There are about 22 species, depending on taxonomy. Most species are shrike-like, arboreal forest birds, feeding on reptiles, frogs and insects. Several other Madagascan birds more similar to Old World warblers, Old World babblers or Old world flycatchers are now often placed in this family. Vangas differ greatly in bill shape and have a variety of foraging methods. Their stick nests are built in trees. They do not migrate. [more]

Vireonidae

The vireos () are a group of small to medium-sized passerine birds (mostly) restricted to the New World. They are typically dull-plumaged and greenish in color, the smaller species resembling wood warblers apart from their heavier bills. They range in size from the Choco Vireo, Dwarf Vireo and Lesser Greenlet, all at around 10 centimeters and 8 grams, to the peppershrikes and shrike-vireos at up to 17 centimeters and 40 grams (Forshaw & Parkes 1991). [more]

Zosteropidae

The white-eyes are small passerine birds native to tropical, subtropical and temperate Sub-Saharan Africa, southern and eastern Asia, and Australasia. White-eyes inhabit most tropical islands in the Indian Ocean, the western Pacific Ocean, and the Gulf of Guinea. Discounting some widespread members of the genus Zosterops, most species are endemic to single islands or archipelagos. The Silvereye, Zosterops lateralis, naturally colonised New Zealand, where it is known as the "Wax-eye" or Tauhau ("stranger"), from 1855. The Silvereye has also been introduced to the Society Islands in French Polynesia, while the Japanese White-eye has been introduced to Hawaii. [more]

At least 306 species and subspecies belong to the Family Zosteropidae.

More info about the Family Zosteropidae may be found here.

References

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Footnotes

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  1. http://www.ubio.org/browser/details.php?namebankID=22801
  2. http://www.ubio.org/browser/details.php?namebankID=22833
  3. http://www.ubio.org/browser/details.php?namebankID=21636
  4. http://www.ubio.org/browser/details.php?namebankID=22815
  5. http://www.ubio.org/browser/details.php?namebankID=22759
  1. ^ Rebecca Stefoff(2008), "The Bird Class", Marshall Cavendish Benchmark
  2. ^ Johansson & Ericson (2003)
  3. ^ See e.g. Boles (1997), Manegold et al. (2004), Mayr & Manegold (2006)
  4. ^ Boles (1997)
  5. ^ Worthy et al. (2007)
  6. ^ The last common ancestor of all songbirds most likely had a decidedly longer tail. See del Hoyo et al. (2003, 2004).
  7. ^ Specimen SMF Av 504. A flattened right hand of a passerine perhaps 10 cm long overall. If suboscine, perhaps closer to Cotingidae than to Eurylaimides: Roux (2002), Mayr & Manegold (2006)
  8. ^ Huguenet et al. (2003), Mayr & Manegold (2006)
  9. ^ Specimens SMF Av 487-496; SMNS 86822, 86825-86826; MNHN SA 1259–1263: tibiotarsus remains of small, possibly basal Passeriformes: Manegold et al. (2004)
  10. ^ A partial coracoid of a probable Muscicapoidea, possibly Turdidae; distal tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus of a smallish to mid-sized passerine which may be the same as the preceding; proximal ulna and tarsometatarsus of a Paridae-sized passerine: Gál et al. (1998-1999, 2000)
  11. ^ A humerus diaphysis piece of a swallow-sized passerine: Hír et al. (2001)
  12. ^ Hír et al . (2001)
  13. ^ Manegold et al. (2004)
  14. ^ Distal right humerus, possibly suboscine: Noriega & Chiappe (1991, 1993)
  15. ^ The former does not even have recognized subspecies, while the latter is one of the most singular birds alive today. Good photos of a Bearded Reedling are for example here and here.
  16. ^ del Hoyo et al. (2003-)
  17. ^ Lov ette & Bermingham (2000), Cibois et al. (2001), Barker et al. (2002, 2004), Ericson & Johansson (2003), Beresford et al. (2005), Alström et al. (2006), Jønsson & Fjeldså (2006)
  18. ^ Gill, F., Wright, M. & Donsker, D. (2008). IOC World Bird Names (version 1.6). Available at http://www.worldbirdnames.org/
  19. ^ Lovette, I.J. (2008). Convergent Evolution: Raising a Family from the Dead. Current Biology. Volume 18, Issue 24, 23 December 2008, Pages R1132-R1134.
  20. ^ Fleischer R.C., James H.F., and Olson S.L. (2008). Convergent Evolution of Hawaiian and Australo-Pacific Honeyeaters from Distant Songbird Ancestors. Current Biology, Volume 18, Issue 24, 1927-1931, 11 December 2008.

Sources

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Last Revised: August 24, 2012
2012/08/24 13:13:29