Overview
The term parasitoid wasp refers to a large evolutionary grade of hymenopteran superfamilies, mainly in the Apocrita. They are primarily parasitoids of other animals, mostly other arthropods. Many of them, such as the family Braconidae, are considered beneficial to humans because they control populations of agricultural pests. Some of these wasps help pest control in a rather sophisticated manner. Certain types of plants have compounds that work in part with the saliva of caterpillars. When the saliva of the caterpillar and the juices of the plant mix, a fragrance is emitted that certain parasitoid wasps are very attracted to. The parasitoid wasps then kill the caterpillars and often use the carcasses to lay eggs within. This is a form of mutualism between the plant and the wasp and works only when the fragrance from the plant and the saliva combine.
Historically, the classification system of Hymenoptera included two div isions or infraorders within the suborder Apocrita: one of these, the "Parasitica" containing the parasitoid wasp. However, the use of the name Parasitica (or its alternative, "Terebrantia") has been phased out in recent years, as it is a paraphyletic grouping, and most modern classifications explicitly reject the use of any groups that are not monophyletic.
Presently, it is not clear what the eventual taxonomic fate of these groups will be. A number of clades seem to stand out in newer studies, and these may be treated as unranked taxa or at the ranks of infraorder and division.
Superfamilies
The traditional superfamilies united in the "Parasitica" are:
- Superfamily Ceraphronoidea
- Superfamily Chalcidoidea
- Superfamily Cynipoidea
- Superfamily Evanioidea
- Superfamily Ichneumonoidea
- Superfamily Megalyroidea
- Superfamily Mymarommatoidea (sometimes included in Serphitoidea)
- Superfamily Platygastroidea
- Superfami ly Proctotrupoidea
- Superfamily Serphitoidea (fossil)
- Superfamily Stephanoidea
- Superfamily Trigonaloidea
Other than the "Parasitica", there are a few Apocrita that are also sometimes called "parasitic wasps": most of the members of the superfamily Chrysidoidea, as well as most of the families superfamily Vespoidea such as Bradynobaenidae, Mutillidae, Rhopalosomatidae, Sapygidae, Scoliidae, Sierolomorphidae, Tiphiidae, and a few species of Pompilidae. Most of these groups are ectoparasitoids. Among the sawflies, which are not Apocrita, there is only one small parasitic family, Orussidae. This is the Apocrita's closest living relative. It thus appears that the ancestors of bees were parasitic too.
Systematics
According to recent cladistic studies, there are a number of basal lineages among the Apocrita, as well as a diverse group of parasitic wasps that seems to form a major clade. If the Apocrita are divided into infraorders, about 6 of these must be recognized, and several of these warrant further subdivision, with a number of families being moved out of the Proctotrupoidea:
- Superfamily Ichneumonoidea seems closer to the Aculeata than to other parasitic wasps. If the Aculeata are treated as a division, the Ichneumonoidea would form a basal superfamily in a new infraorder.
- Superfamily Stephanoidea forms a clade or infraorder of its own.
- Another clade or infraorder contains the following groups:
- Superfamily Megalyroidea
- Superfamily Trigonaloidea
- a clade or division containing
- Superfamily Ceraphronoidea
- Superfamily Evanioidea.
- A clade or infraorder containing families formerly in the Proctotrupoidea:
- Family Maamingidae
- a clade, division or superfamily containing
- Family Austroniidae
- Family Diapriidae
- Family Monomachidae.
- Another clade or infraorder of families formerly in the Proctotrupoidea:
- Family Proctor enyxidae
- Family Roproniidae
- The bulk of the parasitic wasps, a clade or infraorder containing two very distinct groups:
- One clade or division containing:
- Superfamily Platygastroidea
- Superfamily Chalcidoidea
- Superfamily Mymarommatoidea (sometimes included in Serphitoidea)
- Superfamily Serphitoidea (fossil, tentatively placed here).
- Another clade or division containing:
- Superfamily Cynipoidea
- Superfamily Proctotrupoidea sensu stricto
- One clade or division containing:
External links
- Parasitic Wasp at Texas Cooperative Extension. Reprinted from Drees, Bastiaan M. and John A. Jackman. A Field Guide to Common Texas Insects. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, 1999. ISBN 0877192634.
- Tree of Life Web Project : Apocrita
- Ponent Pictorial overview. (In Catalan)
- [1] Manipulation of host behaviour by a parasitoid
Taxonomy
The Series Parasitica is further organized into finer groupings including:
- Superfamily (11): Ceraphronoidea · Chalcidoidea · Cynipoidea · Evanioidea · Ichneumonoidea · Megalyroidea · Mymarommatoidea · Platygastroidea · Proctotrupoidea · Stephanoidea · Trigonalyoidea
- Family (63): Agaonidae · Anomopterellidae · Aphelinidae · Archaeocynipidae · Aulacidae · Austrocynipidae · Austroniidae · Braconidae · Ceraphronidae · Chalcididae · Cretevaniidae · Cynipidae · Diapriidae · Elasmidae · Encyrtidae · Eoichneumonidae · Ephialtitidae · Eucharitidae · Eulophidae · Eupelmidae · Eurytomidae · Evaniidae · Figitidae · Gasteruptiidae · Gerocynipidae · Heloridae · Ibaliidae · Ichneumonidae · Jurapriidae · Karatavitidae · Leucospidae · Liopteridae · Maimetshidae · Megalyridae · Megaspilidae · Mesoserphidae · Monomachidae · Mymaridae · Mymarommatidae · Ormyridae · Pelecinidae · Peradeniidae · Perilampidae · Platygastridae · Praeaulacidae · Praeichneumonidae · Proctotrupidae · Protimaspidae · Pteromalidae · Renyxidae · Roproniidae · Rotoitidae · Scelionidae · Signiphoridae · Stephanidae · Stigmaphronidae · Stolamissidae · Tanaostigmatidae · Tetracampidae · Torymidae · Trichogrammatidae · Trigonalyidae · Vanhorniidae
Families
Agaonidae
Fig wasps are wasps of the family Agaonidae which pollinate figs or are otherwise associated with figs, a coevolutional relationship that has been developing for at least 80 million years. They have been seen to fly farther than any known pollen-bearing insect, and in some regions of the world where wind can gust at up to 30 kilometres per hour (19 mph), they can travel downwind approximately 100 miles in their 48-hour lifespan. [more]
Anomopterellidae
Aphelinidae
Aphelinidae is a moderate-sized family of tiny parasitic wasps, with some 1160 described species in some 35 genera. These minute insects are challenging to study as they deteriorate rapidly after death unless extreme care is taken (e.g., preservation in ethanol), making identification of most museum specimens difficult. The larvae of the majority are primary parasitoids on Hemiptera, though other hosts are attacked, and details of the life history can be variable (e.g., some attack eggs, some attack pupae, and others are hyperparasites). They are found throughout the world in virtually all habitats, and are extremely important as biological control agents. [more]
Archaeocynipidae
Aulacidae
The family Aulacidae is a small cosmopolitan group, with 3 extant genera containing some 200 known species. They are primarily endoparasitoids of wood wasps (Xiphydriidae) and xylophagous beetles (Cerambycidae and Buprestidae). They are closely related to the family Gasteruptiidae, sharing the feature of having the first and second metasomal tergites fused, and having the head on a long pronotal "neck", though they are not nearly as slender and elongate as Gasteruptiids, nor are their hind legs club-like, and they have a more sculptured thorax. They share the evanioid trait of having the metasoma attached very high above the hind coxae on the propodeum. [more]
Austrocynipidae
Austroniidae
Braconidae
Braconidae is a family of parasitoid wasps and one of the richest families of insects. Between 50,000 and 150,000 species exist worldwide. The species are grouped into about 45 subfamilies and 1,000 genera, some important ones being: , Aphanta, Asobara, Bracon hebetor, Cenocoelius, Chaenusa, Chorebidea, Chorebidella, Chorebus, Cotesia, Dacnusa, Microgaster, Opius, Parapanteles, Phaenocarpa, Psenobolus. [more]
Ceraphronidae
Ceraphronidae is a small Hymenopteran family with 14 genera and some 360 known species, though a great many species are still undescribed. It is a poorly known group as a whole, though most are believed to be parasitoids (esp. of flies), and a few hyperparasitoids. Many are found in the soil, and of these, a number are wingless. [more]
Chalcididae
The Chalcididae are a moderate-sized family within the Chalcidoidea, composed mostly of parasitoids and a few hyperparasitoids. The family is apparently polyphyletic, though the different subfamilies may each be monophyletic, and some may be elevated to family status in the near future. As presently defined, there are over 85 genera and over 1455 species worldwide. They are often black with yellow, red, or white markings, rarely brilliantly metallic, with a robust mesosoma and very strong sculpturing. The hind femora are often greatly enlarged, with a row of teeth or serrations along the lower margin. [more]
Cretevaniidae
Evaniidae, also known as the ensign wasps or hatchet wasps, is a family of parasitic wasps. It numbers around 20 extant genera containing over 400 described species, and is found all over the world except in the polar regions. The larvae of these solitary wasps feed on cockroaches and develop inside the egg-cases (oothecae) of their hosts. [more]
Cynipidae
Gall wasps (Cynipidae), also called Gallflies, are a family of the order Hymenoptera and are classified with the Apocrita suborder of wasps in the superfamily Cynipoidea. About 1300 species of this generally very small creature (1-8 millimeters) are known worldwide, with about 360 species of 36 different genera in Europe and some 800 species in North America. [more]
Diapriidae
Diapriidae is a family of insects belonging to the order Hymenoptera. These tiny wasps (with an average length of 2-4 mm and never exceeding 8 mm) are typically parasitoids on the larvae and pupae of a wide range of insects, especially flies; a few are hyperparasitoids (e.g., Ismarus, which parasitize Dryinidae who are themselves parasites of leafhoppers). There are about 2300 described species in 150 genera, divided into four subfamilies, and the group has a global distribution. [more]
Elasmidae
The genus Elasmus is the only member of the subfamily Elasminae (formerly classified as a separate family, Elasmidae), and contains over 200 species worldwide. They are mostly parasitoids or hyperparasitoids of lepidopteran larvae, though several species are parasitoids of Polistes paper wasp larvae. [more]
Encyrtidae
Encyrtidae is a large family of parasitic wasps, with some 3710 described species in some 455 genera (see List of encyrtid genera). The larvae of the majority are primary parasitoids on Hemiptera, though other hosts are attacked, and details of the life history can be variable (e.g., some attack eggs, some attack larvae, others are hyperparasites and there are even Encyrtidae that develops as parasitoids of ticks). They are found throughout the world in virtually all habitats, and are extremely important as biological control agents. [more]
Eoichneumonidae
Ephialtitidae
Eucharitidae
Eulophidae
Eulophidae is a large family of hymenopteran insects, with over 4,300 described species in some 300 genera (see list of eulophid genera). The family as presently defined also includes the genus Elasmus, which was previously treated as a separate family, "Elasmidae", and is now treated as a subfamily of Eulophidae. These minute insects are challenging to study as they deteriorate rapidly after death unless extreme care is taken (e.g., preservation in ethanol), making identification of most museum specimens difficult. The larvae of a very few species feed on plants but the majority are primary parasitoids on a huge range of arthropods at all stages of development. They are exceptional in that they are one of two hymenopteran families with some species that are known to parasitize Thysanoptera. Eulophids are found throughout the world in virtually all habitats (one is even aquatic, parasitising psephenid beetles). [more]
Eupelmidae
Eupelmidae is a family of parasitic wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea. The group is apparently polyphyletic, though the different subfamilies may each be monophyletic, and may be elevated to family status in the near future. As presently defined, there are over 905 described species in 45 genera. The larvae of the majority are primary parasitoids, commonly on beetle larvae, though many other hosts are attacked, including spiders, and details of the life history can be variable (e.g., some attack eggs and others are hyperparasites). They are found throughout the world in virtually all habitats. [more]
Eurytomidae
Eurytomidae is a family within the superfamily Chalcidoidea. The group is apparently polyphyletic, though the different subfamilies may each be monophyletic, and may be elevated to family status in the near future. As presently defined, there are some 1420 described species in 87 genera. [more]
Evaniidae
Evaniidae, also known as the ensign wasps or hatchet wasps, is a family of parasitic wasps. It numbers around 20 extant genera containing over 400 described species, and is found all over the world except in the polar regions. The larvae of these solitary wasps feed on cockroaches and develop inside the egg-cases (oothecae) of their hosts. [more]
Figitidae
Figitidae is a family of tiny wasps with a worldwide distribution. There are currently about 1400 described species in 126 genera although many taxa undoubtedly await discovery. In contrast to most cynipoids, which are gall-inducing phytophages, these insects are parasitoids, the larvae feeding internally on the larvae of other insects. Flies are the commonest hosts but Neuroptera and other Hymenoptera are also targeted by various species. [more]
Gasteruptiidae
Gerocynipidae
Heloridae
Ibaliidae
Ichneumonidae
Ichneumonidae is a family within the insect order Hymenoptera. Insects in this family are commonly called ichneumon wasps. Less exact terms are ichneumon flies (they are not closely related to true flies), or scorpion wasps due to the extreme lengthening and curving of the abdomen (scorpions are not insects). Simply but ambiguously these insects are commonly called "ichneumons", which is also a term for the Egyptian Mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon); ichneumonids is often encountered as a less ambiguous alternative. Ichneumon wasps are important parasitoids of other insects. Common hosts are larvae and pupae of Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Lepidoptera. [more]
Jurapriidae
Karatavitidae
Leucospidae
Liopteridae
Maimetshidae
Megalyridae
Megaspilidae
Megaspilidae is a small Hymenopteran family with 12 genera in two subfamilies, and some 450 known species, with a great many species still undescribed. It is a poorly known group as a whole, though most are believed to be parasitoids (esp. of Sternorrhynchan Hemiptera), and a few hyperparasitoids. Many are found in the soil, and of these, a number are wingless. [more]
Mesoserphidae
Monomachidae
Mymaridae
Mymaridae, commonly known as fairyflies or fairy wasps, is a family of chalcid wasps found in temperate and tropical regions throughout the world. It contains around 100 genera and 1424 species. All of them are parasitoids of the eggs of other insects. Several species have been successfully used as biological pest control agents. [more]
Mymarommatidae
Ormyridae
Pelecinidae
The genus Pelecinus is the only living member of the family Pelecinidae (there are also two fossil genera), and contains only three species restricted to the New World. One species, Pelecinus polyturator, occurs from North through South America, and the others occur in Mexico () and South America (Pelecinus dichrous). The females are glossy wasps, very long (up to 7 cm) and the abdomen is extremely attenuated, used to lay eggs directly on scarab larvae buried in the soil. [more]
Peradeniidae
Perilampidae
The Perilampidae are a small family within the Chalcidoidea, composed mostly of hyperparasitoids. The family is closely related to the Eucharitidae, and the eucharitids appear to have evolved from within the Perilampidae, thus rendering the family paraphyletic (if the two families are joined in the future, the name that has precedence is Eucharitidae). As presently defined, there are 15 genera and >270 species worldwide. They are often brilliantly metallic (especially blue or green), with a robust mesosoma and a small, triangular metasoma (swollen and bulbous in ). They are generally very strongly sculptured. The prothorax is typically very broad and disclike, and the labrum is multidigitate, a feature shared with the Eucharitidae. [more]
Platygastridae
The Hymenopteran family Platygastridae (sometimes incorrectly spelled Platygasteridae) is a large group (over 1100 species) of exclusively parasitoid wasps, mostly very small (1-2 mm), black, and shining, with elbowed antennae that have an 8-segmented flagellum. The wings most often lack venation, though they may have slight fringes of setae. [more]
Praeaulacidae
Praeichneumonidae
Proctotrupidae
Protimaspidae
Pteromalidae
Pteromalidae is a very large family of parasitic wasps, with some 3,450 described species in some 640 genera (the number used to be greater, but many species and genera have been reduced to synonymy in recent years). The subfamily-level divisions of the family are highly contentious and unstable, and there is no question that the family is completely artificial, composed of numerous distantly-related groups (polyphyletic). Accordingly, details of the life history range over nearly the entire range possible within the Chalcidoidea, though the majority are (as with most Chalcidoids) parasitoids of other insects. They are found throughout the world in virtually all habitats, and many are important as biological control agents. [more]
Renyxidae
Roproniidae
Rotoitidae
Scelionidae
The Hymenopteran family Scelionidae is a very large cosmopolitan group (over 3000 described species in some 160 genera) of exclusively parasitoid wasps, mostly small (0.5-10 mm), often black, often highly sculptured, with (typically) elbowed antennae that have an 9- or 10-segmented flagellum. Nowadays it is considered to be a subfamily of Platygastridae. [more]
Signiphoridae
Signiphoridae (historically also known as Thysanidae) is a small family of parasitic wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea. There are approximately 80 species in 4 genera. [more]
Stephanidae
Stigmaphronidae
Stolamissidae
Tanaostigmatidae
Tetracampidae
Torymidae
Torymidae is a family of wasps that consists of attractive metallic species with enlarged hind legs, and generally with a long ovipositor. Many are parasitoids on gall-forming insects, and some are phytophagous (plant-eating) species, sometimes usurping the galls formed by other insects. There are over 960 species in ca. 70 genera worldwide. They are best recognized in that they are one of the few groups of Chalcidoidea in which the cerci are visible. [more]
Trichogrammatidae
The family Trichogrammatidae are tiny wasps in the Chalcidoidea that include some of the smallest of all insects, with most species having adults less than 1 mm in length. There are over 840 species in ca. 80 genera worldwide. Trichogrammatids parasitize the eggs of many different orders of insects. As such, they are among the more important biological control agents known, attacking many pest insects (esp. Lepidopterans). [more]
Trigonalyidae
Vanhorniidae
More info about the Family Vanhorniidae may be found here.
Sources
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