Overview
Wood
storks are large wading
birds approximately 3 1/2 feet in height
with a wing span
of over 5 feet. They are distinguished by a dark unfeathered head
and neck, a white body, and a black tail and wing tips
. Like most other wading birds, wood storks feed
on small fish in shallow freshwater
wetlands. They use tall cypresses near the water for colonial
nest
sites.
Wood storks (Mycteria americana) are one of two species of storks that breed
in North America. This large, long-legged inhabitant of marshes, cypress swamps
, and mangrove swamps reaches
the northern limit
of its breeding range
in the southeastern U.S., where it breeds in colonies with great egrets, snowy egrets, white ibises, and many other species. The unique feeding method of the wood stork gives it specialized habitat
requirements; the habitats on which wood storks depend have been disrupted by changes in the distribution, timing, and quantity
of water flows
in South Florida. The population declines that accompanied this disruption led to its listing as an endangered species and continue to threaten the recovery of this species in the U.S.
|
Endangered |
|
Common Names
Click on the language to view common names.
Common Names in Czech:
Nesyt Americký
Common Names in Danish:
Amerikansk Skovstork
Common Names in Dutch:
Kaalkopooievaar
Common Names in English:
American Jabiru, American Wood Ibis, American Wood Stork, Flinthead, Gannet, Gourdhead, Hammerhead, Ironhead, Preacher, Spanish Buzzard, Wood Ibis, Wood Stork
Common Names in Estonian:
Muda-Toonekurg
Common Names in Finnish:
Amerikaniibishaikara
Common Names in French:
Cigogne Américaine, Tantale D'amërique, Tantale D'amérique
Common Names in German:
Amerikanischer Nimmersatt, Waldstorch
Common Names in Guarani:
Tujuju Kangy
Common Names in Haitian Creole Frenc:
Tantal Rak Bwa
Common Names in Italian:
Cicogna Americana, Tantalo Americano
Common Names in Japanese:
Amerikatokikou, アメリカトã‚コウ
Common Names in Latin:
Mycteria americana
Common Names in Norwegian:
Amerikastork
Common Names in Polish:
Dlawigad Amerykanski
Common Names in Portuguese:
Cabeça-De-Pedra, Cabeça-Seca
Common Names in Portuguese (Brazil):
Cabeça Seca, Cabeça-Seca
Common Names in Russian:
ÐиÑÑ‚ леÑной, американÑкий клювач
Common Names in Slovak:
Bocian Lesný
Common Names in Spanish:
Cayama, Cigüeña Americana, Tántalo Americano
Common Names in Spanish (Argentine):
Tuyuyú
Common Names in Spanish (Bolivia):
Tuyuyú
Common Names in Spanish (Costa Rica):
Cigueñón
Common Names in Spanish (Cuba):
Cayama
Common Names in Spanish (Dominican R:
Coco
Common Names in Spanish (Honduras):
Cigüeña
Common Names in Spanish (Mexico):
Cigueña Americana
Common Names in Spanish (Nicaragua):
Cigüeña Americana
Common Names in Spanish (Paraguay):
Tuyuyú
Common Names in Spanish (Uruguay):
Cigüeña Cabeza Pelada
Common Names in Swedish:
Amerikansk Ibisstork
Common Names in unspecified:
Wood Stork
Description
Family Ciconiidae
Large, long-legged, long-necked wading birds with long stout bills. Only 19 living species, they are all mute.
Physical Description
Adult : Head : bare, dirty brownish-black Bill: blackish Curvature: decurved Length : long Shape : thick heavy bill drooped at tip Neck: bare, dirty brownish-black Body: white Legs : Foot Color: blackish Leg Color: blackish gray Wings: Flight Feathers: black Secondaries: black Tail: black.Immature: Head: grayish down Bill: horn color or yellowish Curvature: decurved Length: long Shape: thick heavy bill drooped at tip Neck: grayish down Body: dull white Legs: Foot Color: blackish Leg Color: blackish gray Wings: Secondaries: black.
Color:
White body. Black tail, legs
, and flight feathers.
Adult
: Dark bill
Immature
: Yellow bill · Feathered head
is grayish-brown
Size/Age/Growth
About 35 to 45 inches long, with a wingspan of 65 to 65 inches. Adults weigh about 96 ounces .
Habitat
The wood
stork is primarily associated with freshwater
and estuarine
habitats
for nesting, roosting, and foraging
. Wood storks typically construct their nests
in medium to tall trees
that occur in stands located either in swamps
or on islands surrounded by relatively broad expanses of open water
(Palmer 1962, Rodgers et al.
1996, Ogden 1991). Historically, wood storks in South Florida established
breeding colonies primarily in large stands of bald
cypress (Taxodium distichum) and red mangrove
(Rhizophora mangle). The large, historic Everglades
NP nesting colonies were in estuarine zones. These estuarine zones are also an important feeding habitat for the nesting birds. In one study of wood stork nesting throughout Florida, which was conducted prior to the 1960s, more than half of all wood stork nests were located in large bald cypress stands, 13 percent were located in red mangrove, eight percent in partially harvested bald cypress stands, six percent in dead oaks (Quercus spp.
), and five percent in small pond
cypress (T. distichum var. nutans) (Palmer 1962). Wood storks have also been observed constructing their nests in custard (pond) apple (Annona glabra), black gum (Nyssa biflora), buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus), black mangrove (Avicenna germinans), strangler fig (Ficus aurea), and southern willow (Salix carolina). Coastal nest sites occur in red mangroves and, occasionally, Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), cactus (Opuntia stricta), and Australian
pine (Casuarina equisetifolia).
During the nonbreeding season
or while foraging, wood storks occur in a wide variety of wetland habitats. Typical foraging sites for the wood stork include freshwater marshes and stock ponds
, shallow, seasonally flooded roadside or agricultural ditches, narrow tidal
creeks
or shallow tidal pools, managed impoundments
, and depressions
in cypress heads
and swamp sloughs. Because of their specialized feeding behavior, wood storks forage
most effectively in shallow-water areas with highly concentrated prey
(Ogden et al. 1978, Browder 1984, Coulter 1987). In South Florida, low, dry-season water levels are often necessary to concentrate
fish to densities suitable for effective foraging by wood storks (Kahl 1964, Kushlan et al. 1975). As a result, wood storks will forage in many different shallow wetland depressions where fish become concentrated, either due to local reproduction
by fishes
, or as a consequence of seasonal drying.
The loss or degradation of wetlands in central and South Florida is one of the principal threats
to the wood stork. Nearly half of the Everglades has been drained for agriculture and urban development (Davis and Ogden 1994). The Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA) alone eliminated 802,900 ha of the original Everglades, and the urban areas in Miami-Dade, Broward and Palm Beach
counties have contributed to the loss of spatial extent of wood stork habitat. Everglades NP has preserved only about one-fifth of the original extent of the Everglades, and areas of remaining marsh
outside of the Everglades NP have been dissected
into impoundments of varying depths.
The U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers’ (COE) Central and Southern Florida (C and SF) Project encompasses 4,660,000 ha from Orlando to Florida Bay
and includes about 1,600 km
each of canals and levees
, 150 water control structures, and 16 major pump stations
. This system
has disrupted the volume, timing, and direction
of fresh water
flowing through the Everglades. The natural sheet flow
pattern
under which the Everglades evolved since about 5,000 years ago has not existed for about 75 years (Leach et al. 1972, Klein et al. 1974). The diversion of natural sheet flow to canals, the loss of fresh water to seepage and to pumping
to tidal waters, and the extraction of fresh water for irrigation
and urban water supply has led to saltwater
intrusion in coastal counties from St
. Lucie County on the east coast to Sarasota County on the west coast.
Although the major drainage
works completed the conversion of wetlands to agriculture in the EAA by about 1963, loss of wetlands continues to the present at a slower, but significant rate. In the entire State of Florida between the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, 105,000 ha of wetlands (including marine
and estuarine offshore habitats) were lost; we do not have an estimate for freshwater wetlands in central and south Florida (Hefner et al. 1994).
Vegetation: freshwater marshes, saltwater and brackish marshes, freshwater lakes and ponds • Maximum Elevation: 800 meters • Foraging Strata: Water • Center of Abundance: Lower tropical: lowlands, lower than 500 m.; tropics. • Sensitivity to Disturbancet: Low
Typically found in the intertidal zone at the water's edge at a mean distance from sea level of 275 meters (903 feet).[1]
Ecology: List of Habitats : 5.4 Wetlands (inland) - Bogs , Marshes, Swamps , Fens , Peatlands 5.5 Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over 8ha) 12.5 Marine Intertidal - Salt Marshes (Emergent Grasses)
Biology
Diet
Wood
storks use a specialized feeding behavior called tactolocation, or grope feeding. A foraging
wood stork wades through the water with its beak
immersed
and partially open (7 to 8 cm). When it touches a prey
item, a wood stork snaps its mandibles shut, raises its head
, and swallows what it has caught (Kahl 1964). Regularly, storks will stir the water with their feet, a behavior which appears to startle hiding prey (Rand 1956, Kahl 1964, Kushlan 1979). Tactolocation allows storks to feed
at night and use water that is turbid
or densely vegetated. However, the prey must be concentrated in relatively high densities for wood storks to forage
effectively. The natural hydrologic regime in South Florida involves seasonal flooding of extensive areas of the flat, low-lying peninsula, followed by drying events which confine water to ponds
and sloughs
. Fish populations reach high numbers during the wet season
, but become concentrated into smaller areas as drying occurs. Consumers
, such as the wood stork, are able to exploit
high concentrations of fish in drying pools and sloughs. In the pre-drainage Everglades
, the dry season of South Florida provided wood storks with ideal foraging conditions by concentrating prey species in gator holes
and other drainages
in the Everglades basin
. In coastal areas, the tidal
cycle strongly influences use of saltwater
habitats
by wood storks. The relatively great tidal amplitudes characteristic of coastal marshes in northeast Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina serve to concentrate
prey. similarly to the seasonal drawdowns
found in freshwater
systems
(FWS 1997).
Storks forage in a wide variety of shallow wetlands, wherever prey reach high enough densities, and in water that is shallow and open enough for the birds to be successful in their hunting efforts
(Ogden et al.
1978, Browder 1984, Coulter 1987). Good feeding conditions usually occur in relatively calm water, where depths are between 10 and 25 cm, and where the water column
is uncluttered by dense patches of aquatic
vegetation (Coulter and Bryan 1993). In South Florida, dropping water levels are often necessary to concentrate fish to suitable densities (Kahl 1964, Kushlan et al. 1975). In east-central Georgia, where stork prey is almost twice as large as the prey in Florida, wood storks feed where prey densities are significantly lower than foraging sites in Florida (Coulter 1992, Coulter and Bryan 1993, Depkin et al. 1992). Typical foraging sites throughout the wood stork’s range
include freshwater marshes and stock ponds
, shallow, seasonally flooded roadside or agricultural ditches, narrow tidal creeks or shallow tidal pools, managed impoundments
, and depressions
in cypress heads and swamp
sloughs. Almost any shallow wetland depression that concentrates fish, either through local reproduction
or the consequences of area drying, may be used as feeding habitat.
Wood storks feed almost entirely on fish between 2 and 25 cm in length
(Kahl 1964, Ogden et al. 1976, Coulter 1987). In South Florida, Ogden et al. (1976) found that certain fish species were taken preferentially. Mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis
) were under represented in the diet
in proportion to abundance
, whereas, flagfish (Jordanella floridae), sailfin mollies (Poecilia latipinna), marsh
killifish (Fundulus confluentus), yellow bullheads (Ictalurus natalis), and sunfish (Centrarchidae) were over represented. Wood storks also occasionally consume crustaceans, amphibians
, reptiles
, mammals, birds, and arthropods
. Fish densities at stork foraging sites varied from 15.6 individuals/m2 in east-central Georgia to 40 individuals/m2 in South Florida (Ogden et al.1978, Depkin et al. 1992).
Because wood storks rely on concentrated food sources which are patchily distributed over large areas, they need to be able to find new feeding grounds
with minimal energy expenditure. Wood storks have soaring abilities that allow them to reach high altitudes
and many kilometers without the energy expenditure of wing-flapping. A recent study suggested that soaring flight by storks can be accomplished at one-tenth the energetic cost of flapping flight (Bryan and Coulter 1995). The long distances
they travel, however, shortens the time available to wood storks for feeding and reduces the number of times an adult
stork can return to its nest
to feed young (Kahl 1964). During the breeding season
, feeding areas proximal
to wood stork breeding colonies may play an important role in chick survival and provide enhanced opportunities for newly fledged birds to learn effective feeding skills.
Reproduction
Mating occurs after a period of highly ritualized courtship
displays at the nest
site (Kahl 1972). As a female bird approaches, male birds establish themselves at potential nest sites and perform ritualized preening behavior. Rival
males will extend their necks, grab their opponents’ bills, and clatter their bills loudly a few times. Females respond by bill gaping and a spread-winged balancing posture. Females will be turned away initially, but after repeated approaches, will respond by swaying their heads
, preening, or playing with nearby twigs
(Kahl 1972). During copulation
, males loudly clatter their bills. Mated pairs greet each other with exaggerated, mutual up-down head movements and hissing calls
.
Wood
storks tend to use the same colony
sites over many years, as long as the sites remain undisturbed and sufficient feeding habitat
remains in the surrounding wetlands. Site turnover rates for the colonies in South Carolina are very low at 0.17 colonies per year. Current
year colonies have an 89 percent likelihood of remaining active
in consecutive years. However, many of these South Carolina colonies are relatively recent.
Traditional wetland nesting sites may be abandoned by storks once local or regional drainage
schemes remove surface water from beneath
the colony trees. Maintaining adequate water levels to protect nests from predation
is a critical factor
affecting production
of a colony. The lowered water levels allow nest access by raccoons and other land-based predators
. As a result of such drainages and predation, many storks have shifted colony sites from natural to managed or impounded wetlands. The percentage of wood storks that nested in either altered wetlands (former natural wetlands with impounded water levels) or artificial wetlands (former upland
sites with impounded water) in central and north Florida colonies increased from about 10 percent in 1960 to between 60 and 82 percent between 1976 and 1986.
Wood storks are seasonally monogamous, probably forming a new pair bond every season
. Three and 4-year-old birds have been documented to breed
, but the average age of first breeding is unknown. Once wood storks reach sexual maturity they are assumed to nest every year; there are no data
on whether they breed for the remainder of their life or whether the interval between breeding attempts changes as they age (FWS 1997).
Wood storks construct their nests in trees
that are usually standing in water or in trees that are on dry land
if the land is a small island surrounded by water. The nest are large rigid
structures usually found in the forks of large branches or limbs. Storks may add guano to the nest to stabilize the twigs. (Rodgers et al.
1988). The nest may be constructed in branches that are only a meter above the water or in the tops of tall trees. They construct their nests out of sticks
, with a lining
of finer material
. Their nests are flat platforms, up to 1 m
in diameter, and are maintained by the adult
storks throughout the breeding season
. Although both adults maintain the nest, the male wood stork usually brings nest material to the female after they complete
their courtship (Palmer 1962).
The date on which wood storks begin nesting varies geographically. In Florida, wood storks lay
eggs
as early as October and as late as June (Rodgers 1990). In general, earlier nesting occurs in the southern portion of the state (below 27°N). Storks nesting in the Everglades
and Big Cypress basins
, under pre-drainage conditions (1930s to 1940s), formed colonies between November and January (December in most years) regardless of annual
rainfall and water level conditions (Ogden 1994 and 1998). In response to deteriorating habitat conditions in South Florida, wood storks in these two regions have delayed the initiation of nesting, approximately two months, to February or March in most years since the 1970s. This shift in the timing of nesting is believed to be responsible for the increased frequencies of nest failures and colony abandonment in these regions over the last 20 years; colonies that start after January in South Florida risk having young in the nests when May-June rains flood marshes and disperse fish.
Female wood storks lay a single clutch
of eggs per breeding season. However, they will lay a second clutch if their nests fail early in the breeding season (M.
Coulter 1996). Wood storks lay two to five (usually three) eggs depending on environmental conditions
; presumably larger clutch size in some years are responses to favorable water levels and food resources
. Once an egg has been laid in a nest, one member
of the breeding pair never leaves the nest unguarded. Both parents are responsible for incubation
and foraging
(Palmer 1962). Incubation takes approximately 28 days, and begins after the first one or two eggs are laid; therefore egg-hatching is asynchronous.
Younger, smaller chicks are often the first to die during times of food stress (FWS 1997). It takes about 9 weeks for the young to fledge
; once they fledge, the young stay
at the nest for an additional 3 to 4 weeks to be fed by their parents. Parents feed
the young nestlings by regurgitating whole fish
into the bottom
of the nest; parents feed the young three to 10 or more times per day. Larger nestlings are fed directly bill to bill. Feedings tend to be more frequent when young are small. Ogden et al. (1978) reported that only one to two feedings per day, per nest, have been recorded in South Florida colonies when adults were forced to fly great distances
to locate prey
. Kahl (1964) calculated that an average wood stork family
(two adults and two nestlings) requires 201 kg
(443 lbs
) of fish during a breeding season, and that a colony of 6,000 nests therefore requires 1,206,000 kg of fish during the breeding season. A similar calculation for a typical Everglades NP or Corkscrew Swamp
colony with 200 nests would require 40, 200 kg (88,600 lbs) of fish during the breeding season.
The production of wood stork colonies varies considerably between years and locations, apparently in response to differences in food availability; colonies that are limited by food resources may fledge an average of 0.5 to 1.0 young per active nest; colonies that are not limited by food resources may fledge between 2.0 and 3.0 young per active nest (Ogden 1996a).
Migration
Nonmigratory. During the non-breeding season (the summer to fall rainy season in South Florida), juvenile wood storks from South Florida colonies have been located throughout the Florida peninsula, southern Georgia, coastal South Carolina, central Alabama, and east-central Mississippi (Ogden 1996a). Additionally, marked individuals from a colony in east-central Georgia were found in the central Everglades during the winter. This information suggests that the southeastern population of wood storks is a single population that responds to changing environmental conditions through temporal relocation. Rodgers’ (1996) data analysis of genetic variation in wood stork populations in South Florida, central Florida, north Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina support this evaluation.
Taxonomy
- Domain:
Eukaryota
(
)
- Whittaker & Margulis,1978
- eukaryotes
- Kingdom:
Animalia
(
)
- Linnaeus, 1758
- animals
- Subkingdom:
Bilateria
(
)
- (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983
- Branch:
Deuterostomia
(
)
- Grobben, 1908
- Infrakingdom:
Chordonia
(
)
- (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
- Phylum:
Chordata
(
)
- Bateson, 1885
- Chordates
- Subphylum:
Vertebrata
(
)
- Cuvier, 1812
- Vertebrates
- Infraphylum:
Gnathostomata
(
)
- Auct.
- Jawed Vertebrates
- Superclass:
Tetrapoda
(
)
- Goodrich, 1930
- Class:
Aves
(
)
- Linnaeus, 1758
- Birds
- Subclass:
Neornithes
(
)
- Gadow, 1893
- Infraclass:
Neoaves
(
)
- Superorder:
Passerimorphae
(
)
- Order:
Ciconiiformes
(
)
- Bonaparte, 1854
- Albatrosses, Alcids
- Suborder:
Ciconii
(
)
-
- Infraorder:
Ciconiides
(
)
-
- Parvorder:
Ciconiida
(
)
- Superfamily:
Ciconioidea
(
)
- Gray, 1840
- Family:
Ciconiidae
(
)
- Gray, 1840
- Storks
- Subfamily:
Ciconiinae
(
)
- Genus:
Mycteria
(
)
- Linnaeus 1758 Syst.Nat.ed.10 p.140
- Specific name:
americana
- Linnaeus 1758 Syst.Nat.ed.10 p.140
- Scientific name: - Mycteria americana Linnaeus 1758
- Specific name:
americana
- Linnaeus 1758 Syst.Nat.ed.10 p.140
- Genus:
Mycteria
(
- Subfamily:
Ciconiinae
(
- Family:
Ciconiidae
(
- Superfamily:
Ciconioidea
(
- Parvorder:
Ciconiida
(
- Infraorder:
Ciconiides
(
- Suborder:
Ciconii
(
- Order:
Ciconiiformes
(
- Superorder:
Passerimorphae
(
- Infraclass:
Neoaves
(
- Subclass:
Neornithes
(
- Class:
Aves
(
- Superclass:
Tetrapoda
(
- Infraphylum:
Gnathostomata
(
- Subphylum:
Vertebrata
(
- Phylum:
Chordata
(
- Infrakingdom:
Chordonia
(
- Branch:
Deuterostomia
(
- Subkingdom:
Bilateria
(
- Kingdom:
Animalia
(
Notes
Name Status: Accepted Name . Latest taxonomic scrutiny: 17-Oct-2001.
Similar Species
Great Egret, American White Pelican, White Ibis
Members of the genus Mycteria
There are approximately 8 species in this genus:
M. americana (American Wood Stork) · M. cinerea (Milky Stork) · M. cinereus · M. ibis (Yellow-Billed Stork) · M. ibis ibis (Yellow-Billed Stork) · M. leucocephala (Painted Stork) · M. senegalensis · M. wetmorei
More Info
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Further Reading
- A bibliography of birds: with special reference to anatomy, behavior, biochemistry --. by Reuben Myron Strong Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1959 UND url p. 117.
- A check list of North American birds. Boston: Estes and Lauriat, 1882. ENG url p. 106.
- A checklist of the vertebrate animals of Kansas / George D. Potts, Joseph T. Collins. [Lawrence, Kan.]: Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, 1991. ENG url p. 7.
- A contribution to the ornithology of northeastern Brazil, by Charles E. Hellmayr. Chicago, 1929. ENG url p. 485.
- A dictionary of birds, by Alfred Newton, assisted by Hans Gadow, with contributions from Richard Lydekker Charles S. Roy and Robert W. Shufeldt London, A. and C. Black, 1893-1896. ENG url p. 462.
- A history of the birds of Colorado, by William Lutley Sclater London, Witherby and co., 1912. ENG url p. 78.
- A systematic list of the birds of California / by Joseph Grinnell. Hollywood: Cooper Ornithological Club, 1912. ENG url p. 8.
- Anglo-russkii biologicheskii slovar' / [avtory, I. N. Afanas'eva et al.; spetsial'nye nauch. redaktory, O. I. Chibisova i L. A. Koziar]. Moskva: Russkii iazyk, 1979. ENG url p. 319.
- Annales des sciences naturelles: comprenant La physiologie animale et végétale, l'anatomie comparée des deux règnes, la zoologie, la botanique, la minéralogie et la géologie Paris: Crochard FRE url p. 92.
- Annals of the Carnegie Museum. [Pittsburgh]: Published by authority of the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institute, 1901- ENG url p. 140, p. 158, p. 189, p. 213, p. 564, p. 599, p. 60.
- Annotated checklist of bird and mammal species of Cocha Cashu Biological Station, Manu National Park, Peru / John W. Terborgh, John W. Fitzpatrick, Louise Emmons. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1984. ENG url p. 15.
- Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, -1965. ENG url p. 102, p. 103, p. 148, p. 148, p. 149, p. 65, p. 93, p. 95, p. 96.
- Aquila. Budapest: A Magyar Ornithologiai Knt Kiadva, 1894- HUN url p. 10, p. 200, p. 219, p. 317, p. 383, p. 584.
- Archiv für Naturgeschichte. Berlin: Nicolai, 1835- GER url p. 15, p. 311, p. 311.
- Arsberattelse om Zoologiens Framsteg till Kongl. Vetenskaps Akademien afgiven af Zoologiae Intendenterna. url p. 221.
- Bird-lore. New York, National Association of Audubon Societies. ENG url p. 86.
- BirdLife International. 2000. Threatened Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge, U.K.
- BirdLife International. 2004 Threatened Birds of the World 2004. CD-ROM. BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K.
- Birds from the Yucatan peninsula, by Melvin A. Traylor. Chicago, 1941. ENG url p. 199, p. 202.
- Birds in Kansas / Max C. Thompson and Charles Ely. Lawrence, Kan.: University of Kansas, Museum of Natural History: c1989- ENG url p. 401, p. 59.
- Birds of America; editor-in-chief, T. Gilbert Pearson; consulting editor, John Burroughs; artists, R.I. Brasher, R. Bruce Horsfall [and] Henry Thurston. New York, The University Society, 1923. ENG url p. 178.
- Birds of New York / by Elon Howard Eaton. Albany: University of the State of New York, 1910-1914. ENG url p. 699.
- Birds of the Pacific coast, including a brief account of the distribution and habitat of one hundred and eighteen birds that are more or less common to the Pacific coast states and British Columbia, many of which are found east by Willard Ayres Eliot; wi New York, G. P. Putnam's sons, 1923. ENG url p. 177.
- Bulletin - United States National Museum. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, [etc.];1877-1971. ENG url p. 411, p. 42, p. 442, p. 57, p. 60, p. 67, p. 72, p. 79.
- Bulletin / Peabody Museum of Natural History. New Haven: The Museum, ENG url p. 259, p. 75, p. 78, p. 84, p. 85.
- Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History). London: BM(NH) ENG url p. 150, p. 152, p. 209.
- Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. Cambridge, Mass.: The Museum, ENG url p. 295, p. 310, p. 410, p. 60.
- Catalogue of birds of the Americas and the adjacent islands in Field Museum of Natural History. Charles E. Hellmayr, Boardman Conover. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1948. ENG url p. 242, p. 244, p. 247.
- Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum. London, 1874-98. ENG url p. 314.
- Check-list of North American birds / prepared by a committee of the American ornithologists' union. Lancaster, Pa.: The Union, 1931. ENG url p. 32, p. 416.
- Check-list of North American birds: according to the canons of nomenclature of the American Ornithologists' Union. [s.l.]: The Union, 1889. ENG url p. 18.
- Color key to North American birds, by Frank M. Chapman with upward of 800 drawings by Chester A. Reed, B. S. New York, Doubleday, Page and company, 1903. ENG url p. 263, p. 302.
- Compendium der Helminthologie. Ein Verzeichniss der bekannten Helminthen, die frei oder in thierischen Körpern leben, geordnet nach ihren Wohnthieren, unter Angabe der Organe, in denen sie gefunden sind, und mit Beifügung der Litte von O. von Linstow. Hannover: Hahn'sche Buchhandlung, 1878. GER url p. 147.
- Comptes rendus des séances de la Société de Biologie et de ses filiales Paris: Masson. ENG url p. 45.
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Notes
Contributors
- BirdLife International 2004. In IUCN 2008. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCNRedList.org. Downloaded July 18, 2008.
- Bisby, F.A., Y.R. Roskov, M.A. Ruggiero, T.M. Orrell, L.E. Paglinawan, P.W. Brewer, N. Bailly, J. van Hertum, eds (2007). Species 2000 and ITIS Catalogue of Life: 2007 Annual Checklist. Species 2000: Reading, U.K.
- Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Accessed March 09, 2008. http://www.gbif.org Mediated distribution data from 11 providers.
- Hines, J. E., Gregory Gough, J. R. Sauer, et al. USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
- Parker III, T.A., D.F. Stotz, and J.W. Fitzpatrick, and quot;Ecological and Distributional Databases for Neotropical Birds, and quot; in Neotropical Birds: Ecology and Conservation, by D.F. Stotz, T.A. Parker III, J.W. Fitzpatrick, and D.K. Moskovits (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). ISBN 0-226-64676-9.
- Peterson, Alan P. Zoological Nomenclature Resource. Accessed June 19, 2009.
- Private Forest Management Team, Auburn University
- Sauer, J. R., J. E. Hines, and J. Fallon. 2005. The North American Breeding Bird Survey, Results and Analysis 1966 - 2004. Version 2005.2. USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD
- Sauer, J. R., S. Schwartz, and B. Hoover. 1996. The Christmas Bird Count Home Page. Version 95.1. USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD
- Wood Stork Species Survival Plan.
Data Sources
Accessed through GBIF Data Portal March 09, 2008:
- Avian Knowledge Network: eBird
- Avian Knowledge Network: Great Backyard Bird Count
- Avian Knowledge Network: Project FeederWatch
- Borror Laboratory of Bioacoustics
- Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility: Provincial Museum of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada. Birds (Aves)
- Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility: Royal British Columbia Museum
- Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University: Bay of Fundy Species List (OBIS Canada)
- Marine Science Institute, UCSB: Paleobiology Database
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology: Terrestrial vertebrate specimens
- New Brunswick Museum: NBM birds
- Royal Ontario Museum: Bird specimens
- Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History: Santa Barbara Musem of Natural History
- UCLA-Dickey Bird Collection (UCLA-Dickey): Bird specimens
- UNIBIO, IBUNAM: CNAV/Coleccion Nacional de Aves
Identifiers
- Biodiversity Heritage Library NamebankID: 3851855
- Catalogue of Life Accepted Name Code: ITS-174897
- Global Biodiversity Information Facility Taxonkey: 14392540
- Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) Taxonomic Serial Number (TSN): 174897
- IUCN ID: 49652
- Natural Heritage Network Species Identifier: ABNGF02010
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Species Identifier: B06O
- Zipcode Zoo Species Identifier: 913
Footnotes
- Standard Deviation = 876.990 based on 10,598 observations. Terrestrial altitude and ocean depth information for each observation from British Oceanographic Data Centre. [back]
